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Geography 2 Terms > Geography 2 Terms 2 > Flashcards

Geography 2 Terms 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

propagule

A

the stage in the life cycle, part of the organism, or group of organisms that is required to establish a new reproducing population.

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2
Q

colonizations

A

dispersal and establishment occur at sites that are beyond the current geographic range of the species

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3
Q

invasions

A

geographic range extensions that are caused by the introduction of exotic species by humans.

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4
Q

Intra-range/ecological dispersal

A

dispersal that results in the movement of a propagule from its place of origin to a new site within the current geographic range of the species.

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5
Q

Extra-range/biogeographical dispersal

A

This type of event results in the movement of the propagule away from its place of origin to a new site that lies outside the current geographic
range of the species.

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6
Q

Passive dispersal

A

dispersal that requires an outside force to move the propagule. The force can be a physical one, such as wind and water, or it can be in the form of biological agents, such as birds and mammals.

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7
Q

Active dispersal

A

dispersal that relies on the propagule itself to provide motion.

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8
Q

Anemochores

A

plants and animals dispersed by the wind

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9
Q

Hydrochores

A

plants and animals dispersed by water

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10
Q

Anemohydrochores

A

organisms dispersed by wind or water

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11
Q

Zoochores

A

organisms dispersed by animals

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12
Q

Anthropochores

A

zoochores that are dispersed by humans

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13
Q

Seasonal Migrations

A

the annual movements of organisms from one regularly

occupied geographic region to another for purposes of avoiding harsh conditions, feeding, and mating.

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14
Q

Irruptions

A

Episodic explosions in the population size and geographic ranges of insects or animals.

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15
Q

Exponential population growth

A

population growth of a species with infinite space and resources

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16
Q

Logistic population growth

A

The population growth of a colonizing species in a setting with finite resources has the S-shaped form

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17
Q

supertramps

A

organisms seem particularly well suited for rapid dispersal and successful colonization.

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18
Q

jump dispersal

A

New populations can be established thousands of kilometers away from the range limits of the species.

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19
Q

(Biogeographical) harmonization

A

Similar species of flora and fauna are found on both sides of the corridor

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20
Q

filters

A

Avenues of dispersal and colonization which are not equally favorable for all species

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21
Q

Great American Exchange

A

The movement of terrestrial fauna that occurred following the establishment of the isthmus

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22
Q

stepping stones

A

Chains of closely distributed islands form a special type of dispersal route

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23
Q

sweepstakes routes

A

Some routes of dispersal and migration only rarely allow successful dispersal and colonization. Crossing such routes occurs by chance and has a very low probability.

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24
Q

evolution

A

genetically controlled changes in physiology, anatomy, and behavior that occur to a species over time

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25
Q

microevolution

A

Evolutionary change within an individual species or population

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26
Q

macroevolution

A

evolutionary change within larger taxonomic units such as families

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27
Q

Speciation

A

development of two or more genetically differentiable species from a single common ancestor species.

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28
Q

clade

A

The different species that arise from the same ancestor

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29
Q

genes

A

The basic physiology, anatomy, and behavior of species are controlled by chemical structures called _____, which are found in living cells and are passed from parents to offspring.

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30
Q

DNA

A

The genes of plants and animals consist of molecules of ______. The DNA molecules are made up of various combinations of sugars and phosphates that are joined together by nitrogenous compounds consisting of adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine bound by hydrogen.

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31
Q

chromosomes

A

Within the cells of an organism the genes are arranged along paired, threadlike structures called _________.

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32
Q

locus

A

The point at which a gene is located on a chromosome

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33
Q

diploid

A

Organisms and cells that have complete sets of chromosome pairs

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34
Q

haploid

A

Certain reproductive cells, such as sperm from animals, contain only one-half of each chromosome pair

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35
Q

polymorphism

A

genetically controlled variation in appearance within a population

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36
Q

alleles

A

The different gene forms that exist for a given locus

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37
Q

heterozygous

A

locus has different alleles associated with it

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38
Q

genome

A

The complete range of genes present in a species

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39
Q

phenotypic variations

A

Differences in the physiology, anatomy, or behavior of different species or individuals of the same species

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40
Q

genotypic variations

A

variations are often the result of genetic differences

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41
Q

cline

A

A geographic gradient in a genetically controlled trait,

such as the height of the yarrow plants

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42
Q

genetic drift

A

The genetic composition of a population can change over time as new genes arise via mutation and other genes are lost through chance processes. Such random changes are referred to as _______ ______.

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43
Q

hybridization

A

when two different species mate

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44
Q

natural selection

A

Traits that provide an advantage in reproduction are selected for, whereas disadvantageous traits are selected against.

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45
Q

allopatric speciation

A

The formation of new species by geographic isolation

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46
Q

sympatric speciation

A

The development of new species within the same geographic area

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47
Q

parapatric speciation

A

This form of speciation, which is caused by the evolutionary divergence of populations that occupy different habitat in the same geographic area, is called disruptive selection, or this.

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48
Q

phyletic gradualism

A

New traits arise by mutations, and traits that infer greater reproductive success are selected for and eventually become dominant over many generations.

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49
Q

punctuated equilibria

A

The idea that species persist for long periods of stasis when little evolutionary change occurs. These relatively stable species are then replaced by new species when the stability of the environment is punctuated by environmental changes.

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50
Q

Cope’s Rule

A

One interesting general pattern that occurs in the evolutionary history of many species is a trend toward larger size as the lineage evolves. This general pattern
of increasing size is referred to as this.

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51
Q

founder principle

A

The idea that populations founded by a very small number of individuals generally contain a small subset of the total genetic variability of the main population and are prone to allopatric speciation.

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52
Q

bottleneck

A

The decreased genetic diversity that results from a decreased population size and asso ciated decrease in genetic diversity

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53
Q

peripatric speciation

A

Occurs when peripheral populations become geographically isolated from the main population and undergo genetic divergence and speciation.

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54
Q

vicariance events

A

In some cases, large populations become geographically separated by geologic events such as the splitting of continents. Such changes, which divide the ranges of species into geographically isolated distributions

55
Q

adaptive radiation

A

The development of many species from a single species often results from this process. During this process, new species evolve from a common ancestor to fill all of the available niches in the colonized region.

56
Q

convergent evolution

A

The development of similar morphological or physiological traits in unrelated species living in geographically separated regions

57
Q

parallel evolution

A

This term is used to describe these instances where geographically isolated populations derived from the same ancestor evolve into morphologically and physiologically similar descendant species.

58
Q

coevolution

A

A final pattern of evolutionary development that is tightly tied by geography occurs when two unrelated species evolve traits that are tied to their interactions

59
Q

extinction

A

loss of all individuals in the population of a given species,
genus, family, or order

60
Q

local extinction

A

occurs when a species or higher taxonomic order disappears in one or more geographic areas but persists in other regions.

61
Q

global extinction

A

refers to the loss of a species, or higher taxonomic order over its entire range.

62
Q

trophic cascades

A

the loss of an important prey species can cause further extinctions because of the loss of food for higher predators

63
Q

phyletic extinction

A

In many cases, species disappear from the fossil record because they evolved into new species

64
Q

Leigh Van Valen

A

Developed the Red Queen Hypothesis in 1973

65
Q

Red Queen Hypothesis

A

In the book the Red Queen says, “it takes all the running you can do to stay in the same place.” The point is that all of a species’ competitors are continually evolving and becoming more competitive. If a species cannot evolve quickly enough to keep pace with the evolution of competing species, it will go extinct because of interspecific competition.

66
Q

evolutionary trap

A

However, evolutionary change and adaptation do not
always protect a species against extinction. In some cases, species may become highly adapted for life in a very isolated geographic area, such as an island or a
remote lake. If the environment changes, such species may have lost the ability to adapt to new conditions. Such overspecialization in an isolated site is referred to as this.

67
Q

blind alleys

A

In addition, the loss of genetic diversity during evolution

can fix species into modes of evolutionary development which become lethal. Such evolutionary paths are called this.

68
Q

endemic

A

When a species, genera, or family is restricted to one or a few geographic regions

69
Q

cosmopolitan

A

Widely distributed families, genera, or species

70
Q

coefficients of similarity

A

Biogeographers often use mathematical indices to provide quantitative estimates of the floral or faunal similarities between regions. These indices are referred to as this

71
Q

harmony

A

For both equations, a value of 1 indicates that the flora or fauna of both regions are identical. Biogeographers would say that the flora or fauna of regions are in _________.

72
Q

biogeographical provincialism

A

The tendency for different regions to possess unique species, genera, or families

73
Q

biogeographic realms

A

Supercontinental areas that contain similar flora and fauna.

74
Q

biogeographic regions

A

Continental and supercontinental areas that contain similar flora and fauna.

75
Q

biogeographic provinces

A

Subcontinental areas that contain similar flora and fauna.

76
Q

biogeographic lines

A

A geographic boundary dividing two biogeographic regions.

77
Q

Wallace’s Lines

A

The boundary between the Austalasian and Oriental biogeographic regions. First described by Alfred Russell Wallace.

78
Q

biogeographic transition zones

A

distinct biogeographic lines between regions which are closely adjacent or share continental areas

79
Q

monophyletic

A

evolved from a common ancestor

80
Q

choropleth map

A

These types of maps, in which the area occupied by an entity (such as a plant or animal species) is delineated by continuous shading or circumscribed by an unbroken line

81
Q

Pielou’s Combined Regions

A

combined floral + faunal biogeographic regions

82
Q

Rapopert’s Rule

A

The general pattern of decreasing range sizes of plant and animal taxa that live near the equator compared to those that live in higher latitudes.

83
Q

Disjunct

A

Having a biogeographic distribution in which

two or more populations of the same taxon are separated by large geographic areas in which the taxon is absent.

84
Q

Dispersal disjunction

A

Taxa which have a disjunct distribution due to jump dispersal events.

85
Q

Climatic disjunctions

A

A disjunct distribution caused by climatic change.

86
Q

Geologic disjunctions

A

A disjunct distribution caused by geologic events such as continental drift.

87
Q

Evolutionary disjunction

A

A disjunction that occurs when species evolve at two different peripheries of the geographic range of a population. Extinction of the ancestral population causes the related species to be disjunct from each other.

88
Q

species richness

A

This simple measure of biodiversity, based solely on the number of different species in a given area

89
Q

species-area relationship

A

The positive relationship between the size of the area surveyed and the number of species encountered

90
Q

historical theories of biodiversity

A

Theories that assume that modern biodiversity is not in equilibrium with modern environmental conditions because it reflects past events of the evolution and extinction.

91
Q

equilibrium theories of biodiversity

A

Theories which assume that modern biodiversity is in equilibrium with modern environmental conditions.

92
Q

stability-time hypothesis

A

The hypothesis that long periods of environmental stability lead to high species richness.

93
Q

peninsula effect

A

Peninsulas have lower species diversity than adjacent mainland areas. The species richness on peninsulas also generally declines toward the tip.

94
Q

intermediate disturbance hypothesis

A

According to this hypothesis, if an ecosystem remains free of disruption by disturbance, the stable homogeneous environmental conditions will favor some species but will lead to the extinction of species for which the stable habitat is not favorable or which are prone to competitive exclusion by species that are favored by the undisturbed environment. The loss of species produces decreased biodiversity. Disturbances cause physical and biological changes and spatial heterogeneity that can favor species that would not survive in a stable undisturbed system. On the other hand, if disturbance
occurs too frequently and is too severe, it will lead to the extinction of disturbance-sensitive species that have long generation times or occur in low numbers and are prone to chance extinction. Thus, maximum levels of biodiversity can be expected from intermediate levels of disturbance that occur frequently enough and cause enough disruption and environmental heterogeneity
for the survival of species which could not persist in an undisturbed system, but are not so frequent or severe as to cause the extinction of long-lived and disturbance-sensitive species.

95
Q

nested pattern of insular communities

A

The general tendency for the biota on islands to contain a subset of the flora and fauna found on nearby larger islands or continents.

96
Q

equilibrium theory of island biogeography

A

The theory advanced by R.H. MacArthur and E.O. Wilson that the biodiversity on islands is governed by rates of colonization and extinction, which are in turn controlled by island isolation and island size

97
Q

species turnover

A

The changing species composition

98
Q

rescue effect

A

This effect occurs when small populations of a species are rescued from the brink of extinction by the arrival of new immigrants of the same species. Isolated
islands are less likely to receive frequent immigrants, so small populations on these islands are more likely to go extinct.

99
Q

target area effect

A

The positive relationship between island size and immigration rates

100
Q

species relaxation

A

The decline in species richness that occurs when a region is cut off from a larger landmass or area of similar habitat

101
Q

continental taxa

A

species that have their main populations and centers of origin on continents

102
Q

insular taxa

A

species that have evolutionary origins on the island

103
Q

Homo sapiens sapiens

A

members of the placental mammal order of the Primates

104
Q

Great Apes

A

includes Chimps, Gorillas and Orangutans.

105
Q

Hominoidea

A

superfamily that includes humans and “Great Apes”

106
Q

hominids

A

include modern humans (Homo sapiens sapiens) and closely related species – which are all extinct today. Some of these extinct species were ancestors of modern humans while others are lineages that have left no modern descendents.

107
Q

bipedal

A

which means they walked on two legs like modern humans.

108
Q

Australopithecus

A

The earliest widely accepted hominids are members of this genus. They appear in Africa about 4 million years ago – representing divergence from the ancestors of the modern chimps.

109
Q

Oldowan Tradition

A

The oldest known tool making tradition, dating from 2.5 to about 1.5 million years ago. It is associated with Homo habilis in Africa.

110
Q

Acheulean Tradition

A

The Lower Paleolithic stone tools of Homo erectus

111
Q

Out of Africa Model

A

A model of human evolution that suggests most hominid species, including modern humans, first evolved in Africa and then dispersed from there to other parts of the world.

112
Q

Out of Asia Model

A

A model of human evolution that suggests that modern humans evolved in Asia and dispersed from there.

113
Q

Multiregional Model

A

The scenario in which Homo sapiens evolved from Homo erectus separately at two or more geographic locations is
called this.

114
Q

Mousterian Tradition

A

The Neanderthal tools from this period are classified as Middle Paleolithic

115
Q

Human Revolution

A

A rapid expansion 50,000 years ago of Homo sapiens sapiens within and out of Africa. These modern hominids created art, practiced ritual burials, and displayed other indications of sophisticated culture.

116
Q

Industrial Revolution

A

The rapid development of new technologies and the shift of the socioeconomic system away from an agrarian base towards a techno-industrial base that has occurred since about 1800.

117
Q

Domestication

A

the process by which plant and animal species come to depend on humans for survival while in turn providing humans with practical or other benefits.

118
Q

Agriculture

A

The cultivation of domesticated plants and animals for human use

119
Q

artificial selection

A

Conscious and unconscious genetic selection practiced by humans on species of plants and animals.

120
Q

hunters and gatherers

A

relied on naturally occurring vegetation, fruits,

nuts, carrion, and game for subsistence

121
Q

pastoral nomadicism

A

The human herders migrated and moved along with their herds during seasonal changes in grazing areas.

122
Q

Fertile Crescent

A

This region of early plant domestication

123
Q

environmental determinism

A

The premise that changes in human culture are driven mainly by changes in environment

124
Q

sixth extinction

A

the episode of extinctions over the past 10,000 years or so that have been caused by humans

125
Q

prehistoric extinctions

A

extinctions caused by the initial geographic expansion of human beings from Africa and Eurasia.

126
Q

historic extinctions

A

caused by the combination of European colonization and socioeconomic expansion, and the rapid global increase in human population.

127
Q

conservation biology

A

a synthetic discipline that applies principles from biology and other sciences to the maintenance of biodiversity

128
Q

conservation biogeography

A

most biogeographers concentrate specifically on how spatial distributions or temporal patterns and historical
events affect the present abundance and potential conservation of biodiversity.

129
Q

landscape ecology

A

concerned principally with spatial patterns of landscapes,
including the distribution of species and habitat on local to regional scales, and with how these patterns are developed and maintained by nature and human actions.

130
Q

land ethic

A

Leopold argued that human communities were part of a greater community that included the natural world. We should extend the same ethical treatment to nature that we extend within human communities.

131
Q

endangered species

A

species or subspecies that is at risk of extinction throughout all or a portion of its range.

132
Q

threatened species

A

species that is likely to be endangered in the foreseeable future.

133
Q

sixth extinction

A

the episode of extinctions over the past 10,000 years or so that have been caused by humans.

Geography 2 Terms (2 decks)

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