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Hallmarks Of Cancer [ONCG1001] > Genomic Instability > Flashcards

Genomic Instability Flashcards

1
Q

What does cancer generation require?

A

Mutation

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2
Q

What is genomic instability?

A

The increased acquisition of genomic alterations

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3
Q

What leads to genomic instability?

A

Defects in mechanisms to protect genomes

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4
Q

What are the two general types of DNA damage?

A

Exogenous and Endogenous

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5
Q

List some examples of exogenous damage

A

UV, x-rays, chemical

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6
Q

List some examples of endogenous damage

A

Metabolism, replication errors, fork stalling

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7
Q

How can the byproducts of metabolism result in oxidative DNA damage?

A

Byproducts include reactive oxygen species with unpaired electron (eg peroxide, hydroxyl radical, superoxide anion) can cause altered bases and strand breaks etc as they can alter chemical composition of DNA

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8
Q

State the 2 ways DNA is protected

A

It’s structure and detoxification

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9
Q

How is DNA protected by its structure?

A

Housed in nucleus so is protected from physical/ chemical damage
Tightly packed, wrapped around his tones, folded into fibres > coils > chromosomes which reduces damage

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10
Q

How is DNA protected by detoxification?

A

Harmful agents are neutralised. Eg:

  • via redox pathway
  • cell membrane pumps which pump our harmful agents
  • enzymes which catalyse harmful agents into safe products
  • proteins which conjugate harmful chemicals before they come into contact with cell
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11
Q

How does the redox pathway help protect DNA?

A 
Superoxide radical (O2-) is converted to H2O2 by the action of a super-oxide dismutase. 
This can be converted to a damaging hydroxyl radical which damages DNA, but is instead converted to H2O and O2 by catalase or into 2H2O via glutathione peroxide, both of which are not harmful to DNA
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12
Q

List the classes/types of DNA damage

A
  • loss of base
  • small additions to nucleotides (adducts)
  • bulkier adducts
  • single or double strand breaks
  • mismatched bases
  • cross links in DNA within and between strands
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13
Q

Describe the most common example of small adduct DNA damage

A

Most common in 8oxo-G where oxygen is added to the 8th carbon of guanine under oxidative stress. Changes structure of guanine

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14
Q

What happens if small adducts go unrepaired?

A

Base pairs in corrects, eg 8-oxoG to A instead of C

Causes mismatch during replication

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15
Q

Describe bulky adducts and give an example

A

Big changes in structure
Eg: benzopyrene (polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon) present in polluted air, food, cigarette smoke, is a big adduct onto guanine

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16
Q

What happens if a bulky adduct goes unrepaired?

A

Can distort DNA helix which blocks replication and stalls transcription

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17
Q

Describe single strand breaks

A

Loss of a single nucleotide, 5’ and 3’ termini damaged at end of breaks

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18
Q

What happens if a single strand DNA break goes unrepaired?

A

Can block DNA replication and stall transcription

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19
Q

What is the difference between double strand and single strand breaks?

A

Double strand loses bases in both strands so there is so template to copy lost info from unlike single strand breaks.

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20
Q

What happens if double stranded breaks go unrepaired?

A

Risk loss of genetic information during replication

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21
Q

Describe cross-link DNA damage

A

Covalent link formed between nucleotides. Can be:

  • intrastrand: between neighboring nucleotides
  • interstrand: between opposite nucleotides
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22
Q

What happens if cross-link DNA damage goes unrepaired?

A

Can cause stalling of replication forks resulting in loss in genetic material

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23
Q

Why is important to protect DNA in non-dividing and dividing cells?

A

Nondividing: damages accumulate
Dividing: block DNA replication, fixed as mutation which can be passed onto daughter cells, may result in cancer

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24
Q

What are the 3 things that may happen to a cell with accumulated DNA damage?

A

Becomes senescent, apoptotic, or cancerous

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25
Q

What happens if an error is detected by the complex signalling networks?

A

Cell cycle arrest initiated
DNA repaired by DNA pathway repairs
Transcriptional program activation or apoptosis

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26
Q

At which cell cycle checkpoints is damaged detected?

A

G1, S, and G2

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27
Q

What happens if DNA damage is detected at the cell cycle checkpoints?

A

ATM and ATR kinases are activated rapidly by phosphorylation. These transmit signal to proteins (eg ChK1, ChK2, p53) which activate other proteins that cause cell cycle arrest

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28
Q

Which proteins detect damage at cell cycle checkpoints?

A

ATM and ATR kinases

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29
Q

Why is arresting the cell cycle a good idea when DNA damage is detected?

A

More time allowed for DNA repair and activation of apoptotic pathway if damage is too great to be reapired

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30
Q

Which protein pathway fixes bulky adducts and pyramadinie dimers?

A

Nucleotide excision repair

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31
Q

What type of DNA damage is fixed by base excision repair?

A

Abasic site single-strand breaks

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32
Q

Which repair pathway fixes base pair mismatch?

A

Mismatch repair, MMR

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33
Q

What type of damage is repaired by homologous recombination repair, HRR, or non-homologous end-joining, NHEJ?

A

Double-strand breaks and interstrand crosslinks

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34
Q

Which repair pathway fixes guanine alkylation?

A

Methyl-guanine methyl-transferase pathways, MGMT

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35
Q

Describe what happens when DNA polymerase makes a mistake

A

DNA polymerase will make a mistake every 1/100,000 nucleotides
The wrong nucleotide is inserted, causing insertion/deletion mutations
Proof-reading corrects majority of mistakes, however mismatch repair is also used
The wrong base is removed and DNA extension is attempted again with correct base

36
Q

Describe the sequence of events involved in mismatch repair

A

MutS protein binds to mismatched base and recruits MutL protein & endonuclease which degrees faulty strand past mismatch
PCNA helps direct action
RPA binds to single strand and is copied by replicative polymerase.
Strands are sealed by ligaments.

37
Q

List the proteins involved in mismatch repair

A 
MutS
MutL
Exonuclease
PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen)
RPA (replicative protein A)
Replicative polymerase
Ligase
38
Q

Describe the action of direct reversal repair using methylated guanine as an example

A

Guanine is methylated on the O6 position (=> O6methylguanine)
MGMT accepts methyl group which prevents O6MeG from pairing with thymine instead of cytosine in replication

39
Q

List the five core steps of base excision repair in order

A
  • Excision of base
  • Incision of strand
  • Processing of ends
  • Repair synthesis
    [- gap filling and ligation]
40
Q

Describe how base excision repair is used to repair oxidative damage to bases

A

Damage base is removed by DNA glycosylase
Excision of base results in an AP site (apurinic or apyrimidinic)
Incised by AP endonuclease (APE1) to create single strand break
PARP1 binds to break (creating intermediate) and helps to recruit other DNA repair factors
DNA polymerase beta adds correct complementary base and DNA ligase III seals end

41
Q

What happens if ends are not processed and are resistant during base excision repair?

A

DNA polymerase adds a run of nucleotides between 2-6 and FEN1/PCNA excises flap structure
DNA ligase I seals ends

42
Q

What are the differences between short patch and long patch base excision repair?

A

Short patch uses ligase III to seal ends ad long patch uses ligase I
Long patch requires DNA polymerase to add a run of nucleotides and FEN1/PCNA to excise flap structure.
Ends can be processed in short patch but not long patch

43
Q

LIst the proteins involved in base excision repair (both long and short patch)

A 
DNA glycosylase
AP endonuclease (APE1)
PARP1
Polymerase beta
DNA ligase III [short patch]
DNA polymerase [long patch]
FEN1 [long patch]
PCNA [long patch]
DNA ligase I [long patch]
44
Q

As well as oxidative damage to bases, what else can base excision repair be used to repair?

A

AP sites and strand breaks

45
Q

What are the two types of nucleotide excision repair and what is the difference?

A

Transcription coupled NER: repairs lesions on coding strand
Global genome NER: repairs rest of genome
There are differences in initial step of pathway.

46
Q

Describe the nucleotide excision repair pathway

A

Lesion is recognised by CSA and CSB in transcription coupled NER and is recognised by XPE, RAD23B and DPB in global genome NER.
TFIIH removes single stranded DNA segment which contains damage (via XPG and ERCC1XPF)
DNA polymerase uses undamaged DNA for template to replace excised strand, PCNA often acts as a cofactor for polymerase.
Ligase III joins DNA strands together

47
Q

Why are double stranded break repairs considered the most important repair pathway?

A

There is a risk of deleting genetic information if it is not repaired

48
Q

What are the two most common pathways which fix double strand breaks?

A 
Homologous recombination (HR)
Non-homologous end-joining (NHEJ)
49
Q

Describe the pathway of non-homologous end-joining

A

Ku recognizes and binds to DNA ends, and then recruits subunit DNA protein kinase (PKcs)
Ends are processed via nucleuses (eg Artemis) OR DNA nucleotides are added to make ends compatible
XRCC4, Ligase IV, and XLF complex seals break

50
Q

Why is NHEJ considered error prone?

A

Small additions/deletions may occur

51
Q

Describe how homologous repair is used to fix double stranded breaks

A

During DNA replication, sister chromatids are used as a template
MRN CTIIP complex generate single strand of DNA which replication protein A (RPA) binds to
RAD51 nucleoprotein filaments search or identical sequence on homologous template, invades template, and uses correct sequence
The DNA is copied and used to mend strand, repairs are completed by joining strands

52
Q

What are the differences between NHEJ and HR

A

HR uses identical sequence from sister chromatids
NHEJ occurs throughout ll of cell cycle
HR only occurs in S and G2 phases

53
Q

Why is the balance o DNA repair important?

A

Too little repair and mutations accumulate which cause genetic instability
Too much repair and the apoptotic pathway is inhibited which may enable cells with badly damaged DNA to attempt to repair, but instead misrepair and survive

54
Q

What are 2 examples of real life situations we know cause DNA damage and cancer?

A
  • UV light & skin cancer: pyramidne bases absorb UV light making them more reactiv towards other bases, forming dimers (repaired by nucleotide excision pathway)
  • Smoking & lung cancer: carcinogens cause bulky adducts that bind to DNA, also contains free radicals causing oxidative damage. P53 mutations in lung cancer
55
Q

What is an example of a bacterial infection that causes cancer?

A

H Pylori, associated with stomach cancer.

Causes chronic inflammation which increases Reactive Oxidative Species, causing DNA damage

56
Q

What is an example of a viral infection that causes cancer?

A

Hepatitis B and C

Causes chronic inflammation which increases ROSs, causing DNA damage

57
Q

What % of cancers are associated with infections?

A

~10-15%

58
Q

What is functional redundancy?

A

The idea that if the main pathway for a type of DNA damage doesn’t repair the damage, a second pathway i usually available to act as backup mechanism

59
Q

List some syndromes associated itch germline mutations in DNA damage

A 
Li Fraumeni
Cockayne’s
Xeroderma Pigemtosum
Franconi’s
Hereditary breast/ ovarian cancer
Hereditary no polyposis colorectal cancer
Nijemegan breakage
Altaxia talagiactasia
Bloom, Werner, Rotham, Thompson
60
Q

What can genetic instability result in?

A

Mutations
Tumour progression
Pathogenesis
Resistance to treatment

61
Q

What are mutations?

A

Permanent changes to DNA sequence

62
Q

What causes mutations?

A

Damage to DNA

Errors in replication

63
Q

What are the possible effects of mutation?

A

Prevent proteins from being expressed
Change function of proteins
Cause over-expression/activation of protein

64
Q

What are the 4 main forms of mutations?

A

Single nucleotide variants
Insertions/deletions
Aneuploidy
Microsatellite instability

65
Q

What is a single nucleotide variant?

A

A point mutation where one base is changed in an amino acid

66
Q

What happens if a single nucleotide variant mutation occurs in a DNA binding domain?

A

Affects p53 confirmation

Downstream signalling is altered

67
Q

What is the most common single nucleotide variant mutation in cancer?

A

P53

68
Q

What is an insertion mutation?

A

Extra DNA added to gene

Might be to/from a different chromsome

69
Q

What is a deletion mutation?

A

DNA removed from gene, entire gene is missing, or chromosome breaks and information is lost

70
Q

What may insertion/deletion mutations result in?

A

amplification of oncogenes

Deletion of TSGs

71
Q

What is an inversion mutation?

A

Where a chromosome breaks in two places, flips the piece, and re-inserts it back into the chromosome

72
Q

What is a translocation mutation?

A

Where a piece of chromosome breaks off and attaches to the end of chromosome

73
Q

What is an example of a translocation mutation and what part of the chromosome(s) does it affect?

A

chronic myeloid leukemia (CML)
Section of chromosome 9 containing ABL breaks and attaches to chromosome 22, creating product BCR-ABL (which is an oncogenic tyrosine kinase)

74
Q

What is Aneuploidy?

A

The addition/deletion of whole chromosomes

75
Q

What happens if the mitosis checkpoints that ensure chromosome segregation goes wrong?

A

Misregulation of chromosomes
Abnormal number of chromosomes proudiced in daughter cells
May promote cell growth / tumour genesis

76
Q

What are microsatellites?

A

Repeated DNA sequences spread throughout genome

77
Q

Generally, how many base pairs make up a microsatellite?

A

Around 1-6

78
Q

What is a genetic fingerprint?

A

The length and locus of an individual’s microsatellites

79
Q

What is microsatellite instability?

A

When microsatellites are not coherent within the individual

80
Q

What causes microsatelite instability?

A

The repeating units cause slipping during replication, resulting in insertions/deletions

81
Q

What is an example of a cancer caused by microsatellite instability?

A

Colorectal cancer

82
Q

What advantages do mutations have fr cancer cells?

A

Increase proliferation
Decrease apoptosis
Result in genetic instability
Affect all hallmarks of cancer

83
Q

Why are certain parts of genome more mutation prone?

A

Different genes have different mutation rates

84
Q

What are some examples of genes mutated in cancer?

A

P53
Rb (a TSG)
Ras and EGFR (oncogenes)

85
Q

What is a ‘caretaker’ gene?

A

A first mutation in a DNA damage and response gene which results in further mutations occurring rapidly

86
Q

Describe intra-tumour heterogeneity

A

A tumour with different mutations within in it

One part of the tumour may be different to another part depending on the mutations that occur there

Hallmarks Of Cancer [ONCG1001] (8 decks)

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