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genomes to ecosystems Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is an ecosystem?

A

a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. both biotic and abiotic factors and their interactions.

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2
Q

what are the four basic services carried out by ecosystems?

A
  • regulating
  • supporting
  • cultural
  • provisioning
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3
Q

describe the symbiotic relationship between coral and zooxannthellae dinoflagellate algae

A

-corals live in shallow, warm water, nutrient poor waters
-corals are colonial cnidarians and feed on zooplankton
-they have evolved faculative endosymbiosis with zooxanthellae dinoflagellate algae to provide vital additional nutrients
-90% of algal nutrients are used by coral, including two essential amino acids
-algae get a nutrient stable refuge, coral gets food
-evidence of genomic co-evolution and co-adaption
-zooxanthellae clades are specific to particular coral families

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4
Q

what is a symbiotic relationship?

A

one where the two organisms depend on one another to survive
e.g. coral and zooxanthakkkae dinoflagellate algae

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5
Q

what is coral bleaching?

A

-under stressful conditions, algae produce clouds of reactive oxygen species
-ROS cause oxidative damage, DNA mutations, cell death
-the coral boots them out

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6
Q

what causes coral bleaching?

A

CO2 emisions and climate change: sea surface temperature increases
Ozone depletion: increased solar irradiance
Deforestation: silt deposition (anoxia)
Overfishing: prey overabundance (anoxia)

coral is highly sensitive to environment stressor (many are caused by man)

*silt is a fine sediment which settles at the bottom of a body of water

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7
Q

what is anoxia in terms of coral reef?

A

when there is no dissolved oxygen in the water

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8
Q

what services to coral reefs provide?

A
  • habitat for fisheries
  • biodiversity
  • tourism
  • coastal protection
  • carbon sinks
  • drug/medicine discovery

*monetising ecosystem services is an important means for ecologists and conservation biologists to engage with government and industry

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9
Q

what is an ecosystem?

A

a community of organisms and their physical environment interacting together. both biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) factors.

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10
Q

what are the four basic functions carried out by ecosystems?

A

energy transfer
nutrient cycling
water cycling
CO2 cycling

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11
Q

what are ecosystem processes?

A

nutrient uptake/release
decomposition
water uptake/evapotranspiration
photosynthesis
herbivory
pollination
predation/paracitism/pathogen attack

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12
Q

how is the concept of ecosystem goods and services linked to the healthy functioning of ecosystems?

A

Ecosystem services are the benefits provided to humans through the transformations of resources (or environmental assets, including land, water, vegetation and atmosphere) into a flow of essential goods and services e.g. clean air, water, and food (

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12
Q

what are detritivores?

A

organisms that consume dead and decaying organic matter

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12
Q

what are the two ecosystem components? give examples.

A

abiotic: sunlight, temperature, precipitation, substrate type, soil/water, chemistry

biotic: primary producers, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, detritivores

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13
Q

what are ecosystem functions?

A

the primary ecosystem processes of capturing, storing and transferring energy, carbon dioxide, nutrients and water.
refers to the capacity of ecosystems to carry out the primary ecosystem processes of capturing, storing, and transferring energy, CO2, nutrients and water.

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14
Q

describe the transformations of energy in an ecosystem.

A

-Primary production: energy from the sun is captured by the process of photosynthesis. CO2 is combined with H2 (derived from the splitting of water molecules) to produce carbohydrates (CHO). Energy is stored in high energy bonds of ATP (adenosine triphosphate).
-Herbivores obtain their energy by consuming plants/plant products
-Carnivores eat herbivores
-Detritivores consume droppings and carcasses

energy flows from trophic level to trophic level via the food chain, energy is lost at each transfer.

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15
Q

what is a trophic level?

A

composed of organisms that make a living in the same way; that is they are all primary producers (plants), primary consumers (herbivores), or secondary consumers (carnivores).
Dead tissue and waste products are produced at all levels. Scavengers, detritivores and decomposers collectively account for the use of all such ‘waste’. Consumers of carcasses and fallen leaves may be other animals, such as crows/beetles, but ultimately it is the microbes that finish the job of decomposition.
*energy is lost between each trophic level

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16
Q

what causes the amount of primary production to vary?

A

differences in the amount of solar radiation and the availability of nutrients and water.

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17
Q

why are there fewer carnivores than herbivores in an ecosystem?

A

because energy is lost at each trophic level in the food chain

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18
Q

what are ecosystem goods and services?

A

the Earth’s ecosystems provide humanity with a wide range of benefits known as ‘ecosystem goods and services’
- in the past, societies often failed to take account of the importance of ecosystems, they were frequently regarded as public property and were consequently undervalued

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19
Q

what is the millennium ecosystem assessment?

A

in 2000, the united nations launched a global millennium ecosystem assessment initiative (MA)
2/3 of Earth’s ecosystem services are in decline/threatened

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20
Q

what are the four types of ecosystem goods and services?

A

supporting services; such as the nutrient cycle, soil formation and habitat provision for biodiversity, forming the basis for the other three types of services.

regulating services; benefits obtained through moderation or control of ecosystem processes, including regulation of local climate, air, or soil quality; carbon sequestration; flood, erosion, or disease control; and pollination.

provisioning services/goods; obtained from ecosystems.

cultural services; nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences

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21
Q

what are supporting ecosystem services?

A

processes that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services, nutrient dispersal and cycling, seed dispersal, primary production

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22
Q

what are regulating ecosystem services?

A

benefits obtained from ecosystem processes that help regulate natural phenomena

benefits obtained through moderation or control of ecosystem processes, including regulation of local climate, air, or soil quality; carbon sequestration; flood, erosion, or disease control; and pollination.

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23
Q

what are cultural ecosystem services?

A

nonmaterial benefits people obtain from ecosystems through spiritual enrichment, cognitive development, reflection, recreation, and aesthetic experiences

-heritage values, cultural identity, spiritual services (sacred, religious), inspiration, aesthetic appreciation, recreation and tourism, scientific discovery

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24
Q

what are provisioning/goods ecosystem services?

A

obtained from ecosystems.
goods; food, crops, wild foods, spices, water, minerals, energy (hydropower, biomass fuels), raw materials, genetic resources, medicinal resources, ornamental resources.
e.g. substances from plant species in more the 50% of prescription medicines;&raquo_space;2000 plant species in industry (paper, furniture, textiles, paints)

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25
Q

explain supporting vs regulating services

A

supporting services; services that are necessary for the production of all other ecosystem services
soil formation, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, biomass production, water cycling, provisioning of habitat

regulating services; benefits obtained from the regulation of ecosystem processes
carbon sequestrations, water recycling, water cleansing, regulation of climate, regulation of the water cycle, regulation of human diseases

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26
Q

what is evolution?

A

the change in the characteristics of a species over several generations and relies on the process of natural selection

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27
Q

what is pattern in terms of evolution?

A

-pattern is the change we see in the fossil record through time
-infer evolutionary relationships between different fossil organisms and their living descendants
-assumption that all organisms, extinct or extant are in some way related
-infer ancestry via homology

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28
Q

what does homology mean?

A

the similarity in the structure, physiology, or development of different species due to a shared evolutionary ancestor

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29
Q

what is the process which drives evolutionary change?

A

natural selection.

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30
Q

summarise natural selection.

A

every species is fertile enough that if all offspring survived to reproduce, the population would grow; despite fluctuations, populations remain roughly the same size. resources such as food are limited and are relatively stable over time. (a struggle for survival ensues).

individuals in a population vary significantly from one another and much of this variation is heritable.

**individuals less suited to the environment are less likely to survive and less likely to reproduce; individuals more suited to the environment are more likely to survive and more likely to reproduce and leave their heritable traits to future generations, which produces the process of natural selection.
-this slowly effected process results in populations changing to adapt to their environments and ultimately, these variations accumulate over time to form new species.

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31
Q

what are mendel’s laws

A

law of dominance and uniformity
law of segregation
law of independent assortment

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32
Q

what does the law of dominance state?

A

‘when parents with pure, contrasting traits are crossed together, only one form of the trait appears in the next generation. the hybrid offspring will exhibit only one dominant trait in the phenotype.’

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33
Q

what is the law of segregation?

A

only one of the two copies present in an organism is distributed to each gamete (egg/sperm) and the allocation of the gene copies is random.

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34
Q

what is the law of independent assortment?

A

the alleles of two (or more) different genes get sorted into gametes independently of one another

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35
Q

how does selection act on phenotypes? (3types of selection)

A

selection type 1: stabilising/purifying
- selection against extreme trait values, phenotypic variation lost from population, mean trait value stays constant

selection type 2: directional selection
-mean trait value moves in response to the direction and intensity of the selection

selection type 3: disruptive selection
-selection against mean trait, the result is a multimodel trait distribution, both extreme traits are favoured in an environment

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36
Q

what is the equation for the heritability of any given trait?

A

h2=VG/VP
*heritability of any given trait is the ratio of the genetic variation to total phenotypic variation

VG = varitation in genotype

VP = variation in phenotype

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37
Q

what is phenotypic placticity?

A

the ability of individual genotypes to produce different phenotypes when exposed to different environmental conditions.

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38
Q

what is the breeders equation?

A

R=h2S

R; evolutionary response
h2; heritability
S; selection differential

the greater the heritability of a trait, the faster a species can respond to selective pressure

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39
Q

what is sexual selection? (and what are the types?)

A

darwin noted that some characteristics in sexually dimorphic species could not readily be explained by natural selection.

intrasexual selection; competition between members of the same sex (usually males) for access to mates

intersexual selection; where members of one sex (usually females) choose members of the opposite sex

**traits that increase the individuals reproductive success even at expense of their survival
e.g. a peacocks tail

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40
Q

what is phylogeny?

A

a diagram that depicts the lines of evolutionary decent of different species, organisms, or genes from a common ancestor

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41
Q

what is morphology?

A

the science of the form and structure of organisms

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42
Q

are humans more/less genetically varied than chimps?

A

less. there are about 300,000 chimps in the world and 7 billion humans but chimps are more genetically variable than humans!

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43
Q

what percentage of DNA is shred with a sibling?

A

average 50% but ranges 38%-62%.

this means that fifth cousins (shared great great great great grandparent) can share none of the same DNA with you 0%-0.2%;0.05% average.

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44
Q

what is the founder effect?

A

the reduction in genomic variability that occurs when a small group of individuals become separated from a larger population

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45
Q

founder effect vs bottleneck effect

A

(genetic drift)
bottleneck effect; where disaster reduces population size
founder effect; when a small group starts a new population
*both result in less genetic variation

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46
Q

what is genetic drift?

A

the change in frequency of an existing gene variant in the population due to random chance- may cause gene variants to disappear completely, reducing genetic variation or make rare alleles become much more frequent/fixed.

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47
Q

what is a species?

A

a group of organisms which can reproduce with one another and can produce fertile offspring

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48
Q

what is speciation?

A

how a new kind of plant/animal species is created; occurs when a group within a species separated from other members of its species and develops its own unique characteristics

(allopatric and sympatric speciation)

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49
Q

what is allopatric speciation?

A

-external barrier separated populations
-populations diverge genetically
or
-(founder effect) small population becomes isolated
-rapid evolution due to non-random sample of genes, different environment, etc

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50
Q

what is sympatric speciation?

A

-no geographic barrier
-populations may differ in habitat, behaviour, adaption
-assortative mating may lead to genetic divergence

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51
Q

what is adaptive radiation?

A

a rapid increase in the number of species with a common ancestor characterised by great ecological and morphological diversity.

52
Q

random vs non random speciation

A

the genetic variation that occurs in a population because of mutation is random- but selection acts on that variation in a very non-random way;
genetic variants that aid survival and reproduction are much more likely to become common than variants that don’t.

53
Q

what are possible causes of adaptive radiations?

A

-key innovations
-environmental changes (new habitats)
-ecological changes (new opportunities)

**adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new environmental niches.

54
Q

what are megafauna? and what caused their extinction?

A

big animals.
human hunting of megaherbivores (causing extinction of predators too), climate change (end of ice age), disease (from humans/associated animals), second-order predation (humans kill predators, prey overpopulation then collapse)

55
Q

de-extinction

A

resurrection biology/species revivalism; the process of generating an organism that either resembles or is an extinct species.

56
Q

how many mass extinctions have there been?

A

five.

ordovician
devonian
permian
triassic
cretaceious

57
Q

what is anthropocene?

A

time during which humans have had a substantial impact on out planet

58
Q

how can we measure species diversity?

A

all phylums have been discovered, most classes, less genus’s + species are found.
this gives an estimate of 8.7 million species.

59
Q

what is the problem with measuring species diversity?

A

there is a lot of bias in the knowledge of species diversity.
a lot of diversity info in certain places doesn’t come from the place itself but from external infos and there is much less known about rare species.

60
Q

what is the largest group of species?

A

insects

61
Q

what is DNA barcoding in terms of species diversity?

A

DNA barcoding has become a standard, efficient genetic approach for species identification and biodiversity monitoring.

62
Q

what are the taxonomic groups?

A

levels of classification.
domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

63
Q

what are the three domains of life?

A

Archea (prokaryotic)
Bacteria (prokaryotic)
Eucarya (eukaryotic)

64
Q

prokaryotic vs eukaryotic

A

prokaryotic cells; cells without a nucleus, unicellular
eukaryotic cells; cells that contain nucleus, multicellular

64
Q

what are the 6 different kingdoms?

A

archaebacteria
eubacteria
protista
fungi
plantae
animalia

65
Q

what are the three levels of organisation within an ecosystem?

A

-community
-population
-individual

66
Q

can natural variation occur between individuals in the same population?

A

yes.
there might be natural variation between individuals in the same population, as long as they are connected in some way (reproductively), they can be included in the population.

67
Q

what is the difference between a population and a species? and give an example.

A

populations are of the same species so could theoretically interbreed, but don’t for some reason (geographic separation, ecological separation, different times)

e.g. different populations in killer whales

68
Q

do smaller or larger animals have larger thermoregulatory costs?

A

smaller.
smaller body sizes have larger thermoregulatory costs, and less energy available for activity.

69
Q

what are key biological processes?

A

growth
metabolism
activity
thermoregulation
reproduction

70
Q

what is primary succession?

A

when a new patch of land is created and exposed for the first time (e.g. emergence of a new island).

animals require nutrients (organic material) but a bare surface is just minerals and other inorganic matter; the first inhabitants are organisms that are capable of converting inorganic matter to organic matter (e.g. using photosynthesis); one these first pioneer species have inhabited the area they introduce small amounts of organic matter- which can be nutrients to a select number of new organisms; this process escalates until an abundance of organic matter has been generated from inorganic matter.
- therefore more variety of species can be supported in that environment, each capitalising on a specific environmental niche.
*this is why biodiversity is a measure of the extent of succession and how established the communities are.

71
Q

what is secondary succession?

A

when the natural habitat is destroyed and needs to be re-established (destruction of existing vegetation)

Deforestation, human-related destruction of habitat, natural destruction.
Some are part of the ecosystem dynamics, (e.g. wildfire that plays and important role for fynbos to complete their life cycle- a small belt of natural shrubland vegetation located in the western cape and eastern cape provinces of south africa).

72
Q

what is a pioneer species?

A

one that’s typically first to colonise a barren ecosystem

73
Q

how are biodiversity and succession related?

A

biodiversity is a measure of the extent of succession and how established the communities are.
- as succession progresses, biodiversity tends to increase; this is because the changes brought about by the pioneer species make the environment more suitable for a wider range of species

74
Q

what is the end of ecological succession?

A

in some environments, succession reaches a climax (stable community, dominated by a small number of prominent species)
the state of equilibrium= climax community
- results when the web of biotic (living things) interactions becomes so intricate that no other species can be admitted
**however; ecological succession is not guaranteed to stop in any area due to the possibility of natural disasters, climate change and disease- the climax community in an area may exist for many years but the area always has the potential to be disrupted by unexpected events which damages the environment

75
Q

what is succession?

A

sequence of development of vegetation from a sterile surface

76
Q

what are the stages of ecological successsion?

A

initiation; bare

colonisation; low nutrient, low water, unstable soil = bryophytes, lichens (stress-tolerant, small, rapidly growing + reproducing)

development; stable soil = grasses, weeds (competitive, disturbance-tolerant)

mature; stable, nutrient & water- rich soil= competitive grasses, bushes, small trees (competitive, less disturbance-tolerant)

climax; stable, nutrient & water-rich soil =large trees (long-lived, disturbance intolerant)

77
Q

what factors determine when individuals stop reproducing and population size growth?

A

density-independent controls

density-dependent controls

78
Q

what are stressors?

A

things which affect all individuals regardless of how large the population is; populations might evolve to be more adapted to these stressors but they would affect all individuals equally.

e.g.
light, wind, salt, water, temperature, pH

79
Q

what is a way in which populations have adapted to deal with stressors?

A

organisms have evolved methods of dispersal, e.g. migration

80
Q

what is dispersal?

A

dispersing individuals leave natal area to find a new location to survive as adults- often happens in early life (larval, seed, juvenile) to avoid problems of overpopulation (leave territory of parents).

81
Q

what are the pros and cons of dispersal?

A

pros;
finding resources, finding better conditions,
reducing competition, avoiding inbreeding depression

cons;
energy cost, increased risk of predation, lack of settlement

82
Q

density dependent factors vs density independent factors

A

dependent;
have various impacts according to population size (different species populations in the same ecosystem will be affected differently)
e.g. disease, competition, predation

independent;
not influenced by a species population size.
e.g. food/nutrient limitation, pollutants in environment, climate extremes, seasonal cycles (i.e. monsoons)

83
Q

what is a community?

A

a group of species that are commonly found together
- may be animal/plant assemblages with similar habitat requirements and contain species which may influence each other and rely on similar processes in their environment.

84
Q

what is competition?

A

negative effects by one organism consuming/controlling access to a LIMITED resource

for plants; light, nutrients, substrate
for animals; food, shelter, mates, space

85
Q

what are the two possible outcomes of competition?

A

co-existence; ecological differentiation
elimination; dominant species outcompetes (ousts) others

86
Q

what does substrate mean in ecology?

A

supporting surface on which an organism grows
- may simply provide a structural support or may provide water and nutrients. it can be inorganic (e.g. rock) or organic (wood)

87
Q

what is typically classed as a good competitor?

A

species with broad distributions and large population sizes are typically those that are good competitors (they can take advantage of the best conditions + outcompete other species which get pushed into marginal ‘suboptimal’ habitats

88
Q

what is an example of species where you can see a population which has been pushed into a suboptimal habitat?

A

barnacles.
CHTHAMALUS can live anywhere in the intertidal zone (wide fundamental niche) based on conditions and resources. However, BALANUS is a better competitor, so throughout its range, only BALANUS survives, reducing the niche of CHTHAMALUS (to where BALANUS does not live)
- BALANUS get more optimal habitat

89
Q

what is an assemblage?

A

a collection of interacting populations in the same geographic area

90
Q

what is an ecological niche?

A

term for the position of a species within an ecosystem
- describes both the range of conditions necessary for persistence of the species and its ecological role in the ecosystem

91
Q

fundamental vs realised niche

A

fundamental; set of resources under which organisms COULD survive

realised niche; set of conditions under which a group of organisms ACTUALLY survive

92
Q

what is the functional niche?

A

combination of conditions and resources where a species SHOULD be able to survive based on their combination of adaptions

93
Q

what is the problem with invasive species in terms of competition?

A

they evolved under a different set of evolutionary pressures and in different communities of predators, so when they arrive in a new location without those, they can outcompete native species, dominating resources, predating on native species and spreading disease.

94
Q

what are examples of invasive species?

A

scottish examples

american skunk cabbage; found alongside rivers and spreads quickly via water systems, it out-competes native plants (especially smaller ones) in damo habitats such as wet woodland, pond margins and stream banks.

himalayan balsam; has narrow root system and dies back in winter, whilst in regrowth it shades out native species. the winter die off leaves a matt of stems and leaves, whilst flooding easily uproots the plant- leads to poorly protected riverbanks that are prone to erosion.

rhododendron; brought to UK for ornamental value, but has spread. the issue with it is that it is quite dense and wide, creating shaded patches that reduces any undergrowth and reduces overall biodiversity of the area that way.

giant hogweed; has phototoxic compound in leaves that, when it gets onto your skin, reacts with light and causes serious burn injuries

95
Q

what is spatial variation in ecology?

A

increased niche availability.
spatial variance in the environment creates diversity in communities of organisms as well as in the variety of the biological and ecological events.

mosaic of stresses + disturbances: ‘patches’
more habitats, niches = higher biodiversity

mosaic of differing intensities of stress and disturbance, in differing combinations, and perhaps from differing sources in the individual habitats comprising the ecosystem- existence of patches (large/small) increases habitat and niche diversity: higher diversity

96
Q

what is parasitism?

A

a tight association between species in which one organism (the parasite) lives inside/on the host- it causes it harm and is structurally adapted to this way of life

97
Q

what is an example of a species which has niche specialisation?

A

darwin’s finches.
success requires some advantage to access different resources as rest of crowd.

98
Q

what is mutualism vs symbiosis

A

mutualism; mutually beneficial interactions between members of the same/different species

symbiosis; close and prolonged association between two organisms of a different species

99
Q

what is an example of a mutualistic and symbiotic relationship?

A

coral + zooxanthellae.
coral polyps, which are animals, and zooxanthellae, the plant cells that live within them, have a mutualistic relationship. Coral polys produce CO2 and H2O as by-products of cellular respiration. The zooxanthellae cells use the CO2 and H2O to carry out photosynthesis. Sugars, lipids (fats) and oxygen are some of the products of photosynthesis which the zooxanthellae cells produce. The coral polyp then uses these products to grow and carry out cellular respiration. The tight recycling of products between the polyp cells and the zooxanthellae is the driving force behind the growth and productivity of coral reefs.

Hippo + oxpeckers.
This is because the oxpecker bird gets food and protection from the hippopotamus. However, the bird gets food by making little cuts in the hippopotamus to obtain insects. This isn’t entirely harmful to the hippopotamus though.

100
Q

what is temporal variation?

A

the changes that occur in the environment over time, ranging from daily cycles to long-term climatic shifts.

increased niche availability; temporal variation
changes throughout period of time
predictable variation= predictable response

101
Q

spatial vs temporal variation

A

Under pure spatial variation, factors vary across a spatial transect but are constant from one time period to another

Under pure temporal variation, factors vary from one time to another but are constant across space.

102
Q

what is essential in maintaining populations?

A

individual fitness

103
Q

what is resource availability dependent on?

A

the plant communities and their stage in succession

104
Q

what affects population growth?

A

resource availability
several density-dependent factors

105
Q

what maintains biodiversity?

A

coexistence within communities and the availability of different environmental niches

106
Q

what drives migration?

A

The cause of migration may be local climate, local availability of food, the season of the year or for mating. To be counted as a true migration, and not just a local dispersal or irruption, the movement of the animals should be an annual or seasonal occurrence, or a major habitat change as part of their life.

107
Q

what are examples of migration?

A

monarch butterfly (autumn + spring migrations)

leatherback turtles (nesting-coastal vs feeding-jellyfish)

blue fin tuna (seasonal- adult vs juvenile patterns)
*young pacific bluefin tuna migrate from the spawning grounds off the coast of Japan to the shores of California. The fish make the 8000km journey at around the age of one- after a few years of feeding and growing, they make the exact same trek but in reverse.

zebra

108
Q

what are the advantages of migration?

A

exploit ‘new’ resources seasonally.
protection of vulnerable young.
avoid inbreeding depression
reducing competition

109
Q

what are the risks of migration?

A

bad weather
lack of ‘emergency stops’
predation
disorientation
potential lack of final stops

110
Q

what are some ways in which scientists can track migration?

A

point counts
natural markings as ID of individual
radar tagging
GPS tagging/satellite tracking
rings for birds

111
Q

what are some mechanisms which help individuals for migration?

A

high efficiency for muscle contraction
pointed wings
fuel as energy-dense lipids
atrophy of non-essential organs

112
Q

describe some bird wing biomechanics.

A

Elliptical wings tend to be found on birds adapted to forested, wooded and shrubby habitats where birds require good manoeuvrability and are generally associated with the requirement of slow speed flight. Elliptical wings are found in the passerines, the gallinaceous species as well as woodpeckers and doves.

High speed wings are possessed by birds that feed in the air or have to make long migratory hauls. They are seen in the swifts, swallows, and also the falcons and some shorebirds. These wings have a relatively high aspect ratio and are only slightly cambered, having an almost flat profile and are often swept back.

The high aspect wing is found on soaring sea birds, such as, albatross and can also be seen on gilders. They like the slotted high-lift wing can provide plenty of lift in the windswept environment in which they live.

The slotted high-lift wing is a characteristic of many terrestrial soaring birds, such as the eagles and the vultures. These wings have a moderate aspect ratio with marked slotting and are heavily cambered. This wing design not only allows them to carry heavy loads but also enables them to minimise energy expenditure whilst foraging for food.

113
Q

explain migration physiology

A

highly accessible, easy to mobilise fuel source.

the contribution of fatty acid oxidation to total energy demand as a function of relative exercise intensity for a variety of running mammals (dogs, goats, rats, and humans). Birds can exercise at a high intensity and use fatty acids as fuel.

114
Q

what is an example of a species which changes which has changes in body composition in relation to migration?

A

godwits.

increased muscle tissue (lungs and heart)
decreased liver, kidney, stomach

strategic size changes of internal organs and muscle tissue during fat storage on a spring stopover site

115
Q

how is migration affected by human influence?

A

Human activities and structures can obstruct migration routes, making it difficult or even impossible for animals to embark on their journeys. Pollution — including light and noise pollution, plus contaminants like pesticides and plastics — is another major problem, too

116
Q

discuss environmental management and protection

A

-ecosystem-based spatial management seems to be best way forward
-decisions made by policy-makers, information supplied by scientists, but public have a voice too
-reserve name based on legislation that establishes protected status
-challenges related to enforcement, conflicting needs of stakeholders
-many environmental policies in the UK were originated by EU directive BUT they are enacted by UK law

117
Q

discuss plastics in relation to the environment.

A

macroplastics: anything over 5mm;
microplactics: anything less than 5mm
primary plactic: whole item
secondary plastic: broken down pieces

often enter oceans from run-off land and rivers.

ingestion on microplastics- false satiation, suffocation, physical blockage, weakened condition, hormonal disruption

solutions- plant based plastics, better washing machines, high efficiency waste-water filtration, beach cleans, recycling education, microbeads ban, fee for carrier bags

118
Q

what is facultative endosymbiosis?

A

refers to a type of symbiotic relationship in which an organism can exist in either a free-living state or as an endosymbiont, depending on environmental conditions.
e.g. reef corals relying on single celled algae call zooxanthellae

this contrasts with obligate endosymbiosis, where the endosymbiont is necessary for the survival of the host organism, as they cannot live independently outside of their host.

119
Q

reed-forming corals rely on single cells algae called zooxanthallae to provide nutrients for growth in the nutrient poor water they inhabit. what term most accurately describes their interaction?

A

facultative/obligate endosymbiosis

obligate endosymbiosis; corals rely on these algae for essential nutrients and energy the algae provide products of photosynthesis (glucose and O2) which are critical for growth and survival of corals, especially in nutrient-poor waters

facultative endosymbiosis; would imply that the organisms can live independently of each other, while some corals can survive without zooxanthellae under specific conditions, the typical relationship is one of dependency (obligate endosymbiosis is a more accurate description).

120
Q

coral ecosystems are under threat from many anthropogenic sources. one approach to monetise their value and convince stakeholders it is worthwhile conserving them is to describe them in terms of…?

A

ecosystem services

121
Q

anthropogenic sources.

A

anthropogenic; environmental change caused/influenced by people either directly/indirectly

sources; landfills, oil and natural gas, agricultural activities, wastewater treatments…

122
Q

populations will increase to a maximum size until they can no longer be sustained by the environment. what is the term used to describe this maximum population size?

A

carrying capacity

123
Q

order the stages of succession starting with a sterile surface

A

initiation> colonisation> development> mature> climax

124
Q

what is an advantage of migration?

A

exploit seasonal resources

125
Q

fundamental vs realised niche

A

because of environmental conditions, fundamental niches are those where organisms COULD survive, while realised niches are those where organisms ACTUALLY survive.

126
Q

what is an example of an invasive species in the UK?

A

american mink

127
Q

coral reef ecosystems are some of the most biodiverse on the planet. what percentage of the oceans estimated 1.5 million species live in these ecosystems?

A

> 50%

128
Q

sexual selection is an evolutionary process that can drive the evolution of traits that have no obvious fitness advantage. what feature of a species is observes in a species that has evolved sexually selected traits?

A

high variance in reproductive success between individuals of the same sex.

some individuals will have significantly more offspring due to the traits they possess, these traits are often driven by mate choice or competition for mates.

sexual selection; type of natural selection where certain traits become more or less common depending on an individuals ability to attract mates. these can sometimes be extravagant (like peacock tails) or other features that may not provide direct survival benefits but enhance mating success.

high variance in reproductive success; in species where sexual selection is strong, males often compete for females, and those with certain desirable traits (e.g. larger size, brighter colours) may achieve more mating opportunities, leading to a high variance in reproductive success

129
Q

floating aggregations of plastic litter in the open ocean have what unintended consequence?

A

connecting the spread of invasive species across the open ocean

fundamental biology (7 decks)

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