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Sophomore- Spring 2024- Mac > Genetics test 2 > Flashcards

Genetics test 2 Flashcards

1
Q

structure of protein

A

a sequence of amino acids. They are joined by peptide bonds (the thing elena showed me)

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2
Q

structure of amino acids

A

N terminus on the left (amino group), hydrogen in middle top, C terminus on right (carboxyl group) and variable group (R group) on bottom.

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3
Q

how amino acids are linked together to form a polypeptide

A

The peptide bond

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4
Q

different levels of protein structure

A

Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary (see notes for structure)

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5
Q

Explain how the structure of RNA allows it to participate in a variety of cellular functions

A

Consists of a large number of linked, repeating, nucleotides. They can fold into many shapes. There are also many types of RNA

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6
Q

List the different classes of RNA

A

mRNA
tRNA
rRNA
miRNA

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7
Q

mRNA

A

carries coding instructions (in cytoplasm and nucleus)

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8
Q

tRNA

A

plays crucial roles during protein synthesis(in cytoplasm)

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9
Q

rRNA

A

plays crucial roles during protein synthesis(in cytoplasm)

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10
Q

miRNA

A

typically regulate stability of specific mRNAs(in nucleus and cytoplasm)

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11
Q

major components required for transcription

A

Template (ssDNA), raw materials (ribonucleic triphospates), enzymes and other proteins

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12
Q

Give the substrate for transcription and how it is used to create a polyribonucleotide chain

A

Ribonucleoside triphosphates are used as the substrates in RNA synthesis. Two phosphate groups are cleaved from a ribonucleoside triphosphate, and the resulting nucleotide is joined to the 3′-OH group of the growing RNA strand

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13
Q

Identify the parts of a typical transcription unit

A

Stretch of DNA encoding mRNA and sequences necessary for transcription

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14
Q

DNA Transcription general principles:

A
  1. Transcription is a selective process; only certain parts of the DNA are transcribed at any one time
  2. RNA is transcribed from a single strand of DNA. Within a gene, only one of the two DNA strands—the template strand—is usually copied into RNA
  3. The transcribed RNA molecule is antiparallel and complementary to the DNA template strand.
  4. always in 5’ to 3’ direction
  5. Transcription depends on RNA polymerase. RNA polymerase consists of a core enzyme, which is capable of synthesizing RNA, and other subunits that may join transiently to perform additional functions e.g. sigma factor enables the core enzyme of RNA polymerase to bind to a promoter and initiate transcription
  6. Promoters contain short sequences crucial to the binding of RNA polymerase to DNA; these consensus sequences are interspersed with nucleotides that play no known role in transcription
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15
Q

Transcription is always in the___ direction

A

Transcription is always in the 5′→3′ direction, meaning that the RNA molecule grows at the 3′ end

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16
Q

three major stages of transcription in bacteria

A

Initiation, elongation, termination

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17
Q

Initiation bacteria

A

Promoter recognition
Formation of transcription bubble
Creatorion of first bonds between rNTPs
Escape of transcription apparatus from promotoer

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18
Q

Elongation

A

DNA is threaded through RNA polymerase; polymerase unwinds + adds new nucleotides to 3’end, rewinds DNA at trailing end

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19
Q

Termination

A

Recognition of end. The terminator ends it.

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20
Q

Understand the concept of colinearity between genes and proteins and how this gave scientists a clue about the presence of introns and exons in eukaryotic DNA

A

The thing elena showed me!!

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21
Q

Be able to differentiate exons and introns

A

Introns go, exons stay. (introns light, exons dark)

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22
Q

Explain the types of processing that occur in pre-mRNA

A

Moving from primary transcript to mature transcript (pre-mRNA to mRNA). This is done in 3 steps; 5’ capping, 3’ capping and intron splicing

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23
Q

Describe the 5’ cap and its function

A

A methylguanine is attached to pre-mRNA. This protects it and helps create stability

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24
Q

Describe the poly(A) tail, how it is added, and its function

A

A bunch of adenine is added to nucleotides at the 3’ end where the cleavage is (where it is likely to break). This creates stability.

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25
Q

Describe how introns are removed from pre-mRNA

A

By RNA splicing. The spliceosomone cuts the introns in a loop and connects exons

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26
Q

Summarize the different regions of a typical mRNA molecule

A

5’ untranslated region, protein region (made up of codons), and 3’ untranslated region

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27
Q

Explain what we mean by “the genetic code”

A

How genetic info is interpreted by protein

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28
Q

Explain how the genetic code is redundant

A

Multiple codons can code for the same protein

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29
Q

Explain how the reading frame of a gene is determined

A

By triplets?

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30
Q

Explain what is meant by the universality of the code

A

All species use the same 4 bases?

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31
Q

Describe the process of elongation, by which amino acids are added to the growing polypeptide chain according to the codons contained in the mRNA

A

Elongation requires initiation, charged tRNA, elongation factors, peptide bonds, and energy

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32
Q

Describe the process by which amino acids are assembled into a protein through translation of an mRNA

A

tRNA charging, initiation of teranslation, elongation, and termination

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33
Q

Describe the process of termination that occurs when a ribosome encounters a stop codon

A

Termination codon stops synthesis

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34
Q

Explain why regulation of gene expression is important and list and explain the different levels at which gene regulation may occur

A

It prevents protein synthesis from occurring when not necessary. It regulates it. The types
* Operons- on and off switches
* Regulatory elements- DNA sequences that affect expression of DNA to which they are linked
* Operator
* Structural genes
* Regulatory genes

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35
Q

Understand how gene regulation in eukaryotes brings about cell differentiation

A

Cells are different because they do not all make same proteins

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36
Q

Structural genes

A

proteins that play a structural or functional role in the cell

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37
Q

Regulatory genes

A

RNA or protein that interacts with DNA and affect transcription or translocation

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38
Q

Regulatory elements-

A

DNA sequences that affect expression of DNA to which they are linked

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39
Q

Explain how operons control transcription in bacterial genes

A

On and off switch

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40
Q

Negative inducible

A

turned on by repressor.

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41
Q

Positive inducible

A

activator turns it on

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42
Q

Negative repressible-

A

repressor turns it off

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43
Q

Positive repressible

A

activator turns it off

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44
Q

lac operon controls

A

the metabolism of lactose as an example of a negative inducible operon

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45
Q

glucose affects

A

transcription through catabolite repression as an example of positive inducible operon

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46
Q

trp operon controls

A

the biosynthesis of tryptophan as an example of a negative repressible operon

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47
Q

Enhancers/silencers-

A

enhance or silence transcription. This has a huge impact on cell identity

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48
Q

Activators

A

stimulate transcription. Faster transcription=more protein

49
Q

Repressors

A

compete w activators by blocking, competing, interfering, etc.

50
Q

Insulators

A

block the action of enhancers

51
Q

Understand how insulators limit the long-range action of enhancers

A

They block the action of enhancers

52
Q

Histone methylation

A

addition or removal of methyl group (-CH3). Some result in increased transcription rate BUT most often they repress transcription.
* H3= histone, K4=lysine 4,3 methyl groups

53
Q

Histone acetylation

A

addition or removal of acetyl group (-COCH3). This results in increased transcription

54
Q

Describe modifications to chromatin structure that affect gene expression in eukaryotes (molecular changes that lead to epigenetic effects)

A

DNA methlyation, histone modifications, and chromatin remodeling

55
Q

Epigenetics

A

inheritance of variation above and beyond DNA sequence. the study of how your behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way your genes work

56
Q

Neutral mutation

A

similar amino acid

57
Q

Loss of function mutation

A

structure of protein or regulatory problems

58
Q

Gain of function mutation

A

new gene product or produced in inappropriate tissue/time

59
Q

Conditional mutation

A

only certain conditions

60
Q

Lethal mutation

A

as it sounds…

61
Q

Germ-line mutations

A

heritable mutations

62
Q

Somatic mutation

A

not heritable mutations

63
Q

Gene mutations

A

relatively small DNA lesions that affect a single gene

64
Q

Chromosome mutations

A

large scale mutations (affect chromosome structure or number of chromosomes)

65
Q

Base substitution

A

single nucleotide is changed

66
Q

types of base substitutions

A

transition, transversion, silent, nonsense, and missense

67
Q

Transition-

A

purine substituted for other purine or pyrimidine substituted for pyrimidine

68
Q

Transversion -

A

purine substituted for a pyrimidine or vice versa

69
Q

Silent-

A

no amino acid change (still encodes for correct thing)

70
Q

Nonsense-

A

premature stop

71
Q

Missense

A

different amino acid

72
Q

Insertion and deletion

A

addition or removal of 1 or more nucleotides

73
Q

types of insertion and deletions

A

Frameshift mutation and In-frame mutation

74
Q

Frameshift mutation

A

affect the reading frame

75
Q

In-frame mutation

A

leave reading frame intact (usually 3)

76
Q

Expanding nucleotide repeats

A

increase in repeated nucleotides(usually 3 nucleotides)

77
Q

Mutations arise from…

A

Mispairings, insertions and deletions, deamination (loss of an amino group from a base) or depurination (loss of a purine…there is a blank spot and A is place in replicated strand).

78
Q

direct reversal repair

A

Happens when DNA is being replicated. It is like an autocorrect.

79
Q

mismatch repair (what, protein, how, when, if impaired)

A
    1. Corrects replication errors including mispaired bases and small indels
    1. Sensor protein:Msh2(aka MutS)senses a mistake (finds the base that IS methalyated bc that is the correct one)
    1. How: remove + replace a section of newly synthesized DNA
    1. When: mainly right away after DNA replication
80
Q

base-excision repair(what, protein, how, when, if impaired)

A
  • What: corrects abnormal bases and modified bases (issues that aren’t considered significant to the DNA helix structure)
  • Sensor protein: DNA glucosylase
  • How: removes single damaged base
  • When: mainly in G1 phase
  • If impaired: neurological issues, cancer risk, etc
    *
81
Q

nucleotide-excision repair(what, protein, how, when, if impaired)

A
  • What: corrects bulky DNA damage (distorts structure)
  • Sensor: XPC-Rad23bcomplex
  • How: remove + replace section of DNA
  • When: before DNA replication
  • If impaired:predisposition to skin cancer
    *
82
Q

homologous recombination(what, protein, how, when, if impaired)

A
  • Corrects: double strand breaks
  • Sensor: MRN complex
  • How: remove some from broken ends invade the other chromosome + replicate to this one
  • When: s/G2 phase when sister chromatids exist
  • If impaired: breast cancer risk
83
Q

non-homologous end joining(what, protein, how, when, if impaired)

A

Corrects: double strand breaks
Sensor: KU heterodimer
How: remove some nucleotides at end. Ligase and polymerase stitch it up. This is VERY imprecise
When: when sister chromatids are not available
If impaired: sever immunodeficiency

84
Q

Mismatch repair, base excision repair, and nucleotide excision repair all…

A

Are when there is a template strand

85
Q

Homologus recombination and non-homologous end joining all…

A

Are when template is not available

86
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

the phenotype is in between homozygoters and can be differentiated from them (pink flower instead of white or red?)

87
Q

Codominance

A

the heterozygotes simultaneously expresses phenotypes of both homozygotes (spotted cow)

88
Q

Penatreance

A

when some individuals who carry a variant express the trait while others dont

89
Q

Expressivitivity

A

degree to which a trait is expressed. Can be affectred by other genes or environmental factors

90
Q

Epistasis

A

effect og genme interaction is that one gene masks (hides) effect of other gene at different locus

Blood types- h allele is epistatic to IA, IB, and i

91
Q

Sex restricted

A

autosomal genes expressed in only one sex (tail feathering is limited to roosters (XY)and is recessive)

92
Q

Sex influenced

A

autosomal gnes but expressed differently in XX vs XY indifiduals (male goats beard is dominant and female goats it is recessive)

93
Q

Genic

A

Genotypes at one or more loci influence sex (ie plants, fish, etc)

94
Q

Chromosomal: XX-XO, XX-XY, ZZ-ZW

A

Sex is dependent on the presence or absence of particular chromosome

95
Q

Environmental

A

Influenced to some degree by environmental factors (ie invertebrates, turtles, etc)

96
Q

genotypic frequencies

A

f(AA)= number of AA/total number

97
Q

allelic frequencies with two alleles

A

= #of copies of allele/# copies of alleles at locus

98
Q

solve Hardy-Weinberg law

A

p2+2pq+q2 (q+p=1)

99
Q

Similarities and differences (bacteria and eukaryotes): Promoter/consensus sequences

A

Same main process (initiation, elongation, and termination.) but it is more complex in eukaryotes. Elongation is the same in both.

100
Q

Similarities and differences (bacteria and eukaryotes):Initiation

A
  • In bacteria polymerase recognizes and binds directly to promoter
  • In eukaryotes the promoter is not immediately recognized and accessory proteins help. This uses transcription factors, which are the accessory proteins and they control the rate of transcritiption
    *
101
Q

Similarities and differences (bacteria and eukaryotes):RNA polymerase

A

Bacteria polymerase has one and eukaryotes have multiple types of polymerase

102
Q

Similarities and differences (bacteria and eukaryotes): Termination

A
  • bacteria : both rho-dependent and rho-independent
  • Eukaryotes: multiple termination factors
103
Q

Describe how different proteins can result from the same pre-mRNA through alternative processing

A

Join exons in different ways and orders, resulting in different proteins.

104
Q

Outline the process of tRNA charging

A

The process of attaching a specific amino acid group to its specific tRNA

105
Q

initiation of translation

A

transcription apparatus assembles on the promoter and begins RNA synthesis.
* mRNA binds to the small subunit of the ribosome
* Initiator tRNA binds to the mRNA through base pairing- codon-anticodon
* large ribosomal subunit joins initiation complex

*ps 5’cap and polyAtail are in eukaryotes

106
Q

Outline the structure and function of a typical operon

A

2 or more protein-coding genes that are regulated by a single promoter. In it is promoter and structural genes, Its function is to control transcription

107
Q

List ways that gene regulation in bacterial and eukaryotic cells differ

A

In bacteria, operons and regulatory elements control gene regulation. In eukaryotic, transcription factors regulate gene expression. Both have activators and repressors

108
Q

Understand what we mean when we say that genes are coordinately expressed in eukaryotic cells

A

In Eukaryotic cells, a single gene can be activated by many regulatory elements. Also, and single stimuli can activate many genes. This means one genotype can result in many phenotypes

109
Q

Describe the role of RNA splicing and degradation in gene regulation

A

Splicing helps a gene be a functional protein by getting rid of introns. Alternative splicing helps create many possible options. Degradation can change how much of protein can be synthesized. Protein synthesized= mRNA synthesized-mRNA degraded. Degradation gets rid of transcripts that arent needed.

110
Q

Explain how transcription factors affect the initiation of transcription

A

They bind to sites on DNA

111
Q

chromatin remodeling

A

remodeling chromatin to expose binding sites and transcription factors of specific genes, this changes chromatin structure and changed gene expression

112
Q

low glucose =

A

higher CAP (if there is not enough glucose, ATP (energy) levels fall and it is broken down into CAP (CAMP activator protein) and can now bind to DNA and increase RNA binding efficiency, including transcription.

113
Q

Predict the effects of different types of mutations on transcription of structural genes in negative/positive and inducible/repressible operons

A

Look at photo for this one. The key on my notes

114
Q

Understand the general mechanisms of the different pathways of DNA repair

A
  1. Damage sensing proteins sense the damage.
  2. Excision protein either removes one base or a short stretch
  3. Dna polymerase or ligase patches DNA back up.
115
Q

How to determine proportions of offspring produced when penetrance is incomplete

A

N individuals with phenotype/n of individuals with genotype x 100

116
Q

Genetic Nondiscrimination Act.

A

protects individuals against discrimination based on their genetic information in health coverage and in employment

117
Q

Understand the importance of the human genome project and its relationship to single-nuclotide polymorphisms

A
  • The Human Genome Project (HGP) identified many single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), which are small variations in DNA that occur between genomes
  • Scientists study SNPs to identify genetic contributors to diseases and other traits. For example, SNPs can help predict how an individual will respond to certain drugs, their susceptibility to environmental factors like toxins, and their risk of developing diseases.
118
Q

Explain the Hardy-Weinberg law and its assumptions and how “breaking” those changes allelic frequency in the population

A

Assumes that genetic variation in a population will remain constant from one generation to the next in the absence of distributing factors

Sophomore- Spring 2024- Mac (11 decks)

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