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BIOLOGY GRADE 11 > GENETICS > Flashcards

GENETICS Flashcards

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1
Q

What is heredity

A

Heredity is the passing of traits from parent to offspring ( eg. eye color )

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2
Q

What is genetics?

A

Genetics is the branch of biology dealing with heredity and the variation of inherited characteristics

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3
Q

What are chromosomes?

A

Chromosomes are structures inside the nucleus of eukaryotic cells and they carry genetic information, they are made of DNA and proteins, DNA is what holds the genetic information

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4
Q

What are genes?

A

Genes are a segment of a DNA molecule that has codes for a particular trait, they are found at specific locations on a chromosome

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5
Q

What is a locus?

A

A locus is the location of a gene on a chromosome

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6
Q

What are diploid cells?

A

They have 2 sets of chromosomes ( eg. body cells )

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7
Q

What are haploid cells?

A

They have one set of chromosomes ( eg. sex cells )

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8
Q

What are polyploids?

A

They have 3 or more sets of chromosomes ( eg. banana triploid )

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9
Q

What is reproduction?

A

It is when organisms inherit genetic information from their parents

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10
Q

What are the 2 types of reproduction?

A

Asexual and sexual reproduction

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11
Q

What is asexual reproduction?

A

Asexual reproduction requires only a single parent. A new individual is produced by cell division ( chromosomes of parent are duplicated and divided ), there is no genetic diversity and daughter cells are genetically identical to parent

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12
Q

What are some advantages of Asexual reproduction?

A

1.) only a single parent is needed, no mate
2.) no special anatomy needed
3.) direct reproduction and generations of offspring are identical to parents

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13
Q

What are some disadvantages of Asexual reproduction?

A

1.) They can be wiped out easily to diseases
2.) They cant adapt as fast to environmental changes
3.) Losing competition of resources to other species

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14
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

Sexual reproduction is when offspring is produced by the fusion of 2 sex cells ( 2 different parents - usually ), the offspring are genetically different to their parents and each other. They obtain half of the genetic information from each of their parents

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15
Q

What are some advantages of sexual reproduction?

A

1.) Genetic variation helps them adapt quicker to diseases and environmental changes
2.) Less competition of resources with other species

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16
Q

What are some disadvantages of sexual reproduction?

A

1.) Energy invested to find and attract a mate
2.) Mating calls/being brightly colored can attract predators
3.) New gene combination may not be advantageous ( weak and unable to survive )

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17
Q

What is asexual reproduction common amongst?

A

It is common among unicellular organism but is also widespread among multicellular groups such as plants and fungi

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18
Q

What are the types of asexual reproduction?

A

1.) Putting out roots and shoots
2.) Budding
3.) Fragmentation

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19
Q

What is putting out roots and shoots?

A

This is when above ground stems extend out and develop into new plants ( eg. strawberry )

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20
Q

What is budding?

A

Budding is when an organism develops from an outgrowth on the body of another organism ( eg. hydra, jellyfish )

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21
Q

What is fragmentation?

A

Fragmentation is when parts of growing mass on an organism break of and continue to grow ( eg. fungi )

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22
Q

What are the 3 stages if the cell cycle?

A

1.) interphase
2.) Mitosis
3.) Cytokinesis

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23
Q

What us mitosis?

A

This is when genetic material in the nucleus is divided equally into 2 new nuclei

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24
Q

What is chromatin?

A

Chromatin are tangled strands of DNA and protein within a eukaryotic cell

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25
Q

What are sister chromatids?

A

Sister chromatids are a identical copy of a single chromosome that remains attached to the original chromosome at the centromere

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26
Q

What is a un-replicated chromosome know as?

A

Chromatid

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27
Q

What is a centromere?

A

A centromere is what holds the two sister chromatids together

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28
Q

What is interphase?

A

The portion of the cell cycle between mitotic divisions when the genetic material ( in the form of chromatin ) is duplicated ( cells spend most of their time in this phase )

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29
Q

What is G1?

A

This is when cellular contents excluding the chromosomes are duplicated

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29
Q

What is S?

A

Each of the 46 chromosomes is duplicated by the cell

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30
Q

What are the 3 stages of interphase?

A

1.) GAP 1 ( G1 )
2.) SYNTHESIS ( S )
3.) GAP 2 ( G2 )

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31
Q

What is G2?

A

The cell “double checks” the duplicated chromosomes for any errors, making any needed repairs

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32
Q

Explain the process of metaphase

A

1.) Spindle fibers attach to the chromosomes at the centromere and begin moving and aligning them

2.) Duplicated chromosomes are pulled towards the center of the cell

3.) Centromeres line up at the equator of the cell

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32
Q

Explain the process of Prophase

A

1.) Chromatin condenses and becomes visible ( now called sister chromatids )

2.) Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve

3.) Centrioles move to opposite ends of
the cell ( small protein bodies )

4.) Spindle fibers form from the centrioles

5.) Centromere helps anchor the chromosomes to spindle fiber

6.) Nucleolus disappears

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33
Q

Explain the process of Anaphase

A

1.) Centromere splits into two and sister chromatids separate ( now referred to as chromosomes )

2.) Spindle fibers pull sister chromatids to opposite poles of the cell

3.) chromosomes are pulled by their centromeres

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34
Q

Explain the process of Telophase

A

1.) Chromosomes reach the opposite poles of the cell and begin to unwind

2.) Spindle fibers dissolve

3.) Nuclear membrane form around chromosomes

4.) Nucleolus starts reforming

5.) Results in 2 daughter nuclei

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35
Q

Explain the process of Cytokinesis

A

1.) Cytoplasm and organelles separate roughly into equal parts

2.) 2 identical daughter cells are formed

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36
Q

What is the difference in cytokinesis in a animal cell vs plant cell?

A

1.) Animal cells undergo C through the formation of a cleavage furrow

2.) Plant cells undergo C through the formation of a cell plate between the 2 daughter nuclei

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37
Q

What are the 2 key processes of sexual reproduction?

A

1.) the formation of gametes

2.) The process of fertilization

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38
Q

What are gametes?

A

They are a single haploid sex cell ( sperm or egg )

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39
Q

What is fertilization?

A

It is the formation of a zygote by joining/fusion of 2 gametes ( diploid )

40
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A cell produced by the fusion of 2 gametes

41
Q

Explain the process of meiosis

A

1.) it is a 2 stage cell division

2.) Resulting daughter cells ( gametes or spores ) have half the number of chromosomes

3.) Formation of gametes is called gametogenesis

4.) Takes places in the testes and ovaries

42
Q

What are the goals of meiosis?

A

1.) reduction in chromosome number

2.) Recombination ( different combinations = genetic diversity )

3.) Fertilization

43
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

Homologous chromosomes are matching pairs of chromosomes that are similar in size and carry information for the same genes

44
Q

What are somatic cells?

A

They are body cells ( where mitosis happens )

45
Q

What are the 23rd pair of chromosomes?

A

Sex chromosomes
XY- MALE
XX-FEMALE

46
Q

What are autosomes?

A

The other 22 pairs of chromosomes

47
Q

What are the stages of meiosis?

A

1.) Interphase
2.) Meiosis 1
3.) Meiosis 2

48
Q

What is meiosis 1?

A

Reduction division from diploid to haploid

49
Q

What is meiosis 2?

A

Number of chromosomes is unchanged, but the total number of cells is 4

50
Q

Explain the process of Prophase 1

A

1.) Chromosomes shorten and thicken

2.) Replicated chromosomes ( during interphase ) join the original at the centromere

3.) Nuclear membrane starts to dissolve

4.) centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell

5.) Spindle fibers form

51
Q

What is synapsis during prophase 1?

A

1.) Physical pairing up of homologous chromosomes to form a tetrad ( 4 chromatids )

2.) Each sister chromatid intertwines with a sister chromatid from its matching homologous chromosome

3.) Site where crossing over takes place

52
Q

What is crossing over during prophase 1?

A

1.) It is the sharing/exchange of genetic material between two non sister chromatids in a homologous pair

2.) Break and reattach ( mixing of genetic info )

3.) Mixing of genetic information increases variation

53
Q

Explain the process of metaphase 1

A

1.) Tetrads ( pairs of homologous chromosomes ) migrate towards the center of the cell

2.) They align their centromeres across the middle of the cell

54
Q

Explain the process of anaphase 1

A

1.) Homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell

2.) Reduction division occurs

3.) Only one chromosome from each homologous pair will be found in each new daughter cell

4.) Each chromosome in the new cells consist of 2 sister chromatids

55
Q

Explain the process of telophase 1

A

1.) Nuclear membrane begins to form around the chromosomes at each end of the cell

2.) Cells begin to divide

3.) Chromosomes in the 2 nuclei are not identical

4.) Each daughter nucleus receives only one member of each original chromosome pair

5.) Cells are now haploid - ready to begin the second stage of meiosis

56
Q

Explain the process of meiosis 2

A

1.) 2nd meiotic division is characterized by the division of sister chromatids

2.) Meiosis 2 begins immediately after telophase 1

3.) Gamete formation occurs

4.) DNA doesnt replicate between meiosis 1 and 2

57
Q

Explain the process of prophase 2

A

1.) signals the beginning of second division

2.) Nuclear membrane dissolves and spindle fibers form

58
Q

Explain the process of metaphase 2

A

1.) Chromosomes align at the equatorial plate

59
Q

Explain the process of Anaphase 2

A

1.) Centromeres divide and non-identical sister chromatids migrate separately to each pole

60
Q

Explain the process of Telophase 2

A

1.) Nuclear membrane begins to form around chromosomes

61
Q

Explain the process of cytokinesis ( meiosis )

A

1.) Cell division is complete

2.) Four haploid and genetically different daughter cells ( gametes ) produced

62
Q

What is random assortment of homologous chromosomes?

A

1.) During meiosis 1 homologous chromosomes pair up during prophase 1 and metaphase 1

2.) Separated form each other during anaphase 1 ( now haploid )

3.) The chromosomes in each pair are assorted independently

4.) A daughter cell can receive either chromosome of each homologous pair ( this is called random assortment )

5.) Possible combinations — 2^n

63
Q

What is gametogenesis?

A

1.) the production of gametes in animals

2.) Contain the haploid number of chromosomes and are produced by meiosis

64
Q

Explain the process of spermatogenesis

A

1.) This is the production of mature sperm cells

2.) Cytoplasm is divided equally during each cell division

3.) formation of 4 equal size sperm cells

65
Q

Explain the process of oogenesis

A

1.) This is the production of mature egg cells

2.) Cytoplasm does not divide equally during each cell division

3.) One of the daughter cells receives most of the cytoplasm

4.) the other cells ( polar bodies ) die

5.) Final product ——-> Single ovum ( egg cell )

66
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

1.) A picture of the chromosomes of an individual that has been sorted and arranged to number, size, and type

67
Q

What is a non-disjunction?

A

1.) It’s the Failure of homologous chromosomes to move to opposite poles of the cell during meiosis

2.) This results in an abnormal number of chromosomes in the daughter cells ( cells with an extra chromosomes, or missing a chromosome )

3.) Can happen during anaphase 1 or 2 of meiosis

68
Q

What happens during non-disjunction of meiosis 1?

A

1.) Non-disjunction of homologous chromosomes during meiosis 1 results in 2 gametes with an extra chromosome ( n+1 ) and 2 gametes that are short one chromosome ( n-1 )

2.) Non-disjunction in human results in gametes with 24 or 22 chromosomes

69
Q

What is Trisomy?

A

1.) Trisomy is a chromosomal abnormality in which there are 3 homologous chromosomes in place of a homologous pair

70
Q

What is Monosomy?

A

1.) Monosomy is a chromosomal abnormality in which there is a single chromosome in place of a homologous pair

71
Q

What are some non-disjunction disorders?

A

1.) Down syndrome
2.) Turner syndrome
3.) Klinefelter syndrome
4.) Patau syndrome
5.) Edwards syndrome

72
Q

What is down syndrome?

A

1.) It is the trisomy of chromosome 21

2.) Excess genetic information and an unpaired chromosome in every cell

3.) Round full face

4.) Short height, large forehead

73
Q

What is Turner syndrome?

A

1.) One X chromosome and no Y chromosome

2.) Female in appearance but do not mature sexually

74
Q

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

1.) 2 X chromosome and 1 Y chromosome

2.) Males usually sterile

3.) Exhibit some feminine body characteristics but severity varies

74
Q

What is Patau syndrome?

A

1.) It is the trisomy of chromosome 13

2.) Have a triangular nose and a cleft lip

3.) Weak muscle tone

4.) Skeletal abnormalities

5.) Serious developmental problems

75
Q

What is Edwards syndrome ?

A

1.) It is the trisomy of chromosome 18

2.) Many organ system defects

3.) Most fetuses die before birth

76
Q

How do you diagnose a non-disjunction?

A

1.) Non-disjunction disorders can usually be confirmed by preparing a karyotype

77
Q

What are assisted reproductive technologies (ART) ?

A

1.) They are used the enhance the chances of reproductive success by increasing the sperm and egg production which increases the chances of successful fertilization

2.) The program may involve the use of fertility drugs and the sourcing, selection. and manipulation of eggs, sperm, and/or embryos outside the human body

78
Q

What is In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)?

A

1.) Uses hormone therapy to stimulate egg production

2.) Then harvest eggs

3.) Egg is fertilized with sperm outside the body in a petri dish

4.) Embryos are transferred into the uterus

79
Q

What are some advantages of AI?

A

1.) Semen can be frozen for a long period of time

2.) Banks of sperm can be maintained

3.) Less costly than transporting animals

4.) Animals that will not breed in captivity can still reproduce

80
Q

What is Artificial insemination?

A

1.) Placement of sperm into the reproductive tract of a female

81
Q

What is cytoplasmic inheritance?

A

1.) It is when cytoplasmic DNA from different organelles are passed down from the parent to the offspring

81
Q

What are some disadvantages of AI?

A

1.) Decreases efforts being made to preserve species in the wild

2.) Money spent on cloning and gene banks are expensive

3.) Money could be used to help protect wild population in natural habitats

82
Q

What is maternal inheritance?

A

1.) This is when a zygote inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the female gamete

83
Q

What is paternal inheritance?

A

1.) This is when a zygote inherits cytoplasmic DNA from only the male gamete

84
Q

What is horizontal gene transfer?

A

1.) Horizontal gene transfer from one species into a different species

2.) It can result in one organism exhibiting a characteristic of an entirely different organism

3.) eg. sea slug

85
Q

What is a genotype?

A

A genotype is the genetic makeup of an organism

86
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

A phenotype is the physical appearance of an organism

87
Q

What is an allele?

A

1.) They are a specific form of a gene

2.) All genes occur in pairs, so 2 alleles affect a characteristic

88
Q

What is a dominant allele?

A

1.) Allele that if present is always expressed

2.) Represented by a capital letter

89
Q

What is a recessive allele?

A

1.) Allele that is expressed only if it’s not in the presence of the dominant allele

2.) Represented by a lower case letter

90
Q

What is a Homozygous genotype?

A

1.) RR or rr, also known as “pure”

2.) RR = Homozygous dominant

3.) rr = Homozygous recessive

91
Q

What is a Heterozygous genotype?

A

1.) Rr, also known as “Hybrid”

2.) Rr = Heterozygous dominant

92
Q

What is a punnet square?

A

1.) A diagram that summarizes every possible combination of each allele from each parent

2.) Tools for determining the probability of a single offspring having a particular genotype

93
Q

What are the types of genetic crosses?

A

1.) Monohybrid crosses

2.) Dihybrid crosses

94
Q

What is a monohybrid cross?

A

1.) Its a cross designed to study the inheritance of only one trait

2.) eg.) Flower color

95
Q

What is a dihybrid cross?

A

1.) Its a cross designed to study the inheritance of two traits

2.) e.) Flower color and plant height

96
Q
A

BIOLOGY GRADE 11 (2 decks)

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