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wildlife conservation > Genetics > Flashcards

Genetics Flashcards

1
Q

Hemoglobin

A

a protein that is used to carry and transport oxygen in the blood

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2
Q

Insulin

A

a protein that is secreted by beta cells and used to regulate glucose (blood sugar levels in the body)

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3
Q

Linus Pauling

A

protein guy that came up with the structure of proteins. He determined the structure and interactions of all proteins and antibodies

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4
Q

Frederick Griffith

A

scientist to first discover DNA in the world of protein

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5
Q

Virulent

A

very strong strain and will cause disease

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6
Q

Principle of transformation

A

The principle that explains the ability of nonvirulent bacteria to become virulent.

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6
Q

Non Virulent

A

very weak strain and does cause disease

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7
Q

Oswald Avery

A

bacteriologist that identified DNA as the substance responsible for genetic transformation

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8
Q

DNA

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid, molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism.

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9
Q

RNA

A

Ribonucleic acid, RNA has a similar structure to DNA but with key differences: the sugar in RNA is ribose, which includes an extra oxygen atom compared to the deoxyribose in DNA. Additionally, RNA contains uracil instead of thymine. These distinctions enable RNA to move freely within the cell and play a crucial role in protein synthesis.

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10
Q

RNAses

A

Enzymes that break down RNA

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11
Q

DNAses

A

Enzymes that break down DNA

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12
Q

Erwin Chargaff

A

looked at the structure of DNA and discovered nucleic acids

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13
Q

Adenine

A

Purine that bonds to Thymine

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14
Q

Thymine

A

Pyrimidine that bonds to Adenine

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15
Q

Guanine

A

Purine that bonds to Cytosine

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16
Q

Cytosine

A

Pyrimidine that bonds to Guanine

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17
Q

Chargaff’s Rule

A

A-T and C-G always in DNA

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18
Q

Rosalind Franklin

A

Franklin’s graduate student, Raymond Gosling, captured the now-famous “Photo 51,” an X-ray diffraction image that revealed the helical structure of DNA.

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19
Q

Name some of the contributions of Linus Pauling

A

Came up with structure of proteins and covalent bonds
Discovered the structure of hemoglobin’s
Study the structure and interaction of proteins and antibodies
Created the basis for proteins

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20
Q

Explain Frederick Griffith’s experiment and how did it contribute to the discovery of DNA?

A

Griffith performed an experiment with bacteria and mice. He took a rough strain and a smooth strain of diseases. One was a virulent strain, which contains bacteria that causes disease and the other was a non-virulent strain, which doesn’t cause disease. In the first half of the experiment, Griffith used both strains and inserted them into two separate rats. One rat who received the non virulent strain survived, and the rat who received the virulent strain died. In the second half of the experiment, he added heat, when he added heat to both strains, it killed the bacteria within them, so when they were injected into the rats they survived. Then he combined both strains with heat and put them in the same rat, the rat survived. In the last portion of the experiment, Griffith took the non virulent strain and added heat to the virulent, when he put both strains into the rat, it died. The reason that this happened is because the DNA of the virulent strain jumped into the non-virulent and changed its genetic makeup turning the non virulent into the virulent, making it lethal which killed the rat.

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21
Q

How did Frederick Griffith contribute?

A

Heat denaturized proteins in virulent strand, and proved the existence of Nucleic Acids

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22
Q

Explain the principle of transformation of Frederick Griffith

A

Process by which genetic material from one organism is taken up by another organism, leading to a change in its characteristics.

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23
Q

Explain Oswald Avery’s experiment and how did it contribute to the discovery of DNA?

A

Had an experiment where he put rough strain into two test tubes. Then used DNAse (protein that eats DNA) and RNAse (protein that eats RNA). When He put the RNAse in it created more bacteria because DNA can always create more RNA. When he put the DNAse in, it destroyed the DNA, meaning no bacteria was created. Through this experiment he proved that DNA is the basis of all life.

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24
Q

Explain Chargaff’s rule and how did it contribute to the discovery of DNA?

A

A-T and C-G are always in DNA structure and showed the structural makeup of DNA

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25
Q

Explain what is wrong with this structure of DNA that Linus Pauling drew?

A

It has 3 helix’s and nucleic acids do not behave like proteins.

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26
Q

Explain Rosalind Franklin’s picture and its importance to the discovery of DNA.

A

The image taken above shows a clear x-shaped pattern which revealed that DNA has a double helix structure made of two intertwined strands. Provided evidence on how DNA is built and how it carries genetic information.

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27
Q

Nucleic acids

A

molecules found in cells that store and transmit genetic material. The two types are DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). DNA holds the instructions for building and maintaining an organism, while RNA helps carry out those instructions.

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28
Q

Ribose

A

oxygen present sugar molecule

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28
Q

Nucleotides

A

are the basic building blocks of nucleic acids. Each nucleotide is made up of three parts: a molecule sugar, phosphate group and a nitrogenous base (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine).

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29
Q

Deoxyribose

A

no oxygen present sugar molecule

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30
Q

DNA

A

molecule that is held together in an non covalent manner by van der waals bonds

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31
Q

RNA

A

nucleic acid that carries out the instructions of DNA by making proteins and regulating gene activity.

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32
Q

Uracil

A

in DNA, uracil replaces thymine.

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33
Q

Supercoiling

A

how DNA can coil positively or negatively. The coiling can possibly break the structure

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34
Q

different forms of DNA

A

B-DNA
A-DNA
Z-DNA

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35
Q

B-DNA

A

normal version

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36
Q

A-DNA

A

supercoiled; clockwise

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37
Q

Z-DNA

A

messed up, more flat; counterclockwise

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38
Q

DS

A

Double stranded

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39
Q

Hairpin

A

protects the structure of RNA

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39
Q

SS

A

Single Stranded

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40
Q

Why are ATP and GTP not nucleotides?

A

ATP and GTP have nothing to do with DNA. They have too many phosphates and have everything to do with the formation of energy.

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41
Q

What is the function of phosphate in nucleic acids?

A

Portion of the DNA that provides structural support to the molecule.

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42
Q

List three differences between RNA and DNA.

A

DNA:
Deoxyribose
Two Helix
Numerous type of DNA

RNA
Ribose
One Helix
One type of RNA

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43
Q

Explain the antiparallel structure of DNA.

A

The antiparallel structure of DNA refers to the orientation of its two complementary strands, which run in opposite directions. Each strand of the DNA double helix has a directionality defined by its sugar-phosphate backbone, with one strand running from the 5’ (five-prime) end to the 3’ (three-prime) end, while the other runs in the reverse direction from 3’ to 5’.

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44
Q

Adenine will always pair up with?

A

Thymine in DNA and Uracil in RNA

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45
Q

Three different types of RNA

A

RNA Sequence (level 1)
RNA secondary structure (level 2)
RNA tertiary structure (level 3)

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45
Q

What does it mean RNA can form Hairpins and why?

A

an unpaired loop of messenger RNA (mRNA) that is created when an mRNA strand folds and forms base pairs with another section of the same strand.

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46
Q

What are the structures RNA can form?

A

RNA Sequence
RNA secondary structure
RNA tertiary structure

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47
Q

Hairpins are what level

A

level 2

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48
Q

Replication

A

process by which the genome’s DNA is copied in cells.

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49
Q

Polymerase

A

enzyme that is used to put together (writer)

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50
Q

Exonuclease

A

pulls nucleotides out of the structure of DNA (editor)

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51
Q

DNA Polymerase

A

enzymes that make the covalent bonds between the nucleotides (monomers) to form a new DNA strand (making a huge polymer).

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52
Q

DNA pol III

A

polymerase that is first (writer) and elongates primers (epsilon)

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52
Q

Topoisomerase

A

relaxes the DNA structure to give other proteins access

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53
Q

Ligase

A

glues backbone of new DNA strand together

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53
Q

DNA pol I

A

degrades the primers and fills the gaps of new strand (editor of DNA)

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54
Q

Leading strand

A

can be continuously built in the direction of the replication fork because the new strand is already in the 5’ to 3’ orientation.

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54
Q

Primase

A

enzyme that adds primers (first pieces of nucleotides that signals DNA polymerase where to land, DNA pol III)

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55
Q

Helicase

A

Breaks DNA into two halves (strands) for replication

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55
Q

Lagging strand

A

must be built in repetitive segments in the opposite direction of the replication fork because of the strand orientation.

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55
Q

SSB Proteins

A

Protein that holds onto single stranded DNA so it doesn’t destabilize, while replication is occurring

56
Q

Okasaki fragments

A

gaps in the DNA

57
Q

5’to 3’

A

leading strand

58
Q

3’ to 5’

A

lagging strand

59
Q

Origin of replication (ORC)

A

starting point for replication of DNA

60
Q

Replication bubble

A

a structure that forms when a DNA double helix is opened up and separated into two strands, and then two Y-shaped replication forks are created within the bubble

61
Q

Replication Fork

A

it’s the spot where the DNA is being unzipped to make a copy of each strand during DNA replication.

62
Q

Transcription

A

process in which a strand of DNA is copied into an RNA molecule

63
Q

RNA pol II

A

places and puts new nucleotides together on strand

64
Q

RNA pol I

A

makes rRNA

65
Q

RNA pol III

A

makes tRNA

66
Q

Pre M-RNA

A

RNA molecule right after being copied from the DNA

67
Q

M-RNA

A

RNA molecule that forms after a cap is attached to protect the message, introns are spliced (polishes and deletes the unnecessary information from draft message), and gets a poly AAA at the 3’ end which shows the length of message.

68
Q

Promoter

A

sequence of DNA that binds RNA polymerase to initiate transcription

69
Q

TATA BOX

A

The landing zone for the RNA pol II that promotes the initiation of transcription.

70
Q

Terminator

A

a section of DNA that adds adenine nucleotides at the end of message and that terminates the process.

71
Q

Spliceosome

A

RNA complex that identifies and edits introns out of a pre mRNA mole.

71
Q

Exon

A

piece of gene that is coded

71
Q

Intron

A

pieces of RNA with no relevant information

72
Q

snRNP’s (snurps)

A

participate in pre-mRNA splicing by recognizing the critical sequence elements present in the introns, thereby forming active spliceosomes.

73
Q

CDS

A

coding sequence

74
Q

UTR

A

untranslated region in DNA that protects the message from being destroyed

75
Q

Cap (Methylguanosine)

A

protects the message

76
Q

Poly aaa Tail

A

makes the RNA molecule more stable and prevents its degradation

77
Q

rRNA

A

ribosomal RNA and helps make peptide chains

78
Q

tRNA

A

transference RNA, transports the amino acids to the ribosomes and attaches the peptide using the enzyme t-RNA synthetase.

79
Q

Codon

A

codes for an amino acid

80
Q

Amino acid

A

building blocks of proteins (assemble into peptide chains)

81
Q

Aceptor stem

A

the amino acids that accept the message from the nucleic acids

82
Q

Anticodon

A

codon on the tRNA

83
Q

t-RNA synthase

A

enzyme that makes tRNA

84
Q

Ribosome

A

proteins that are divided of two pieces (60s large and 40s small) and help put amino acids together

85
Q

Subunit 60s large

A

in charge of assembling the polypeptides

86
Q

Subunit 40 s small

A

in charge of reading mRNA

87
Q

APE: protein assembly sites

A

A: tRNA lands and delivers Amino Acids
P: tRNA makes the peptide bond
E: exits ribosome

88
Q

Marshall Nirenberg Genetic code

A

created a table to translate the 20 Amino acids

89
Q

Ubiquitin

A

enzyme that makes ubiquitination- the disassembling and destroying of proteins so they can be recycled.

90
Q

Antibiotics

A

used to kill bacteria or fungi, these usually disrupt transcription and/or translation of specific proteins.

91
Q

What is the difference between a polymerase and a exonuclease?

A

Polymerase - puts the nucleotides in the structure

Exonuclease - takes out nucleotides in the structure

92
Q

Name all the proteins involved in DNA replication and their function.

A

DNA polymerase and DNA primase to catalyze nucleoside triphosphate polymerization
DNA helicases and single-strand DNA-binding (SSB) proteins to help in opening the DNA helix so that it can be copied
DNA ligase and an enzyme that degrades RNA primers to seal together the discontinuously synthesized lagging-strand DNA fragments
DNA topoisomerases to help to relieve helical winding and DNA tangling problems.

92
Q

For Replication. DNA uses what polymerase?

A

Poly III and Poly II

93
Q

What is the function of splicing the pre-RNA?

A

Getting rid of introns

93
Q

What causes Okasaki fragments?

A

discontinuous DNA replication on the lagging strand during DNA replication

94
Q

What is the sequence that promotes transcription of a gene?

A

TATA box

95
Q

What is the function of the UTR’s?

A

Protection the message of RNA from being destroyed

96
Q

What is the function of the Poly AAA tail? Like an instruction manual.

A

Tells everything about the function, expiration date, and location for RNA.

97
Q

How does the t-RNA change from secondary structure to tertiary structure?

A

formed by further folding of the secondary structure

98
Q

What does the s in the subunit means?

A

Large 60s (faster) and small 40s (slower), sedimentation (s)

99
Q

Which subunit interacts with the m-RNA, and which interacts with the amino acids?

A

This subunit is primarily responsible for binding to the mRNA and ensuring accurate codon-anticodon pairing between the mRNA and tRNA molecules, which determine the sequence of amino acids in the growing protein chain

100
Q

How does the acronym APE help us understand the function of the ribosome?

A

Puts steps of how ribosome makes peptide chain in nymonic order

101
Q

What is ubiquitination?

A

essential player in protein homeostasis, serving to rapidly remove unwanted or damaged proteins.

102
Q

How do antibiotics disrupt Replication, transcription, and translation?

A

targeting essential processes in the cell

103
Q

How do antibiotics know how to attack the pathogens in our body and not our
machinery?

A

Antibiotics work by affecting things that bacterial cells have but human cells do not. For example, human cells do not have cell walls, while many types of bacteria do.

104
Q

Transcription

A

process of copying genetic information from DNA into a molecule called RNA

105
Q

Translation

A

the process by which a cell makes proteins using the genetic information carried in messenger RNA (mRNA)

106
Q

Bacteriophage

A

viruses that infect and replicate on in bacterial cells

107
Q

Coronavirus

A

negative single stranded RNA virus, this is why its so easily transmitted

108
Q

DS

A

Double Stranded

109
Q

HIV

A

is a retrotranscriptase virus where the RNA must undergo reverse transcription into DNA to be integrated into the host cell’s genome.

110
Q

SS

A

Single

111
Q
A
112
Q

Positive sense

A

a DNA strand whose nucleotide sequence matches the sequence of an RNA transcript that can be translated into amino acids

113
Q

Negative Sense

A

equivalent to the template strand, whereas the positive-sense strand is the non-template strand whose nucleotide sequence is equivalent to the sequence of the mRNA transcript.

114
Q

5’ to 3’

A

leading strand

115
Q

Group 1/Class 1

A

Hepatitis B DSDNA

Adenovirus DS DNA

Herpes Simplex DSDNA

116
Q

3’ to 5’

A

lagging strand

117
Q

Group 2/Class 2

A

Parvovirus SSDNA

118
Q

Group 3 / Class 3

A

Reovirus DS RNA

Rotavirus DS RNA

119
Q

Group 5/Class 5

A

Influenza SS RNA
Covid SS RNA
Ebola SS RNA

120
Q

Group 4/Class 4

A

Poliovirus SS RNA

121
Q

Group 6/class 6

A

Retroviruses SS RNA

122
Q

Retrotranscriptase

A

enzyme that turns RNA into DNA

123
Q

Baltimore Scheme

A

a scheme for classifying viruses based in its genome type and replication strategy

124
Q

Explain the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology

A

DNA -> RNA -> Protein

Dictates the DNA replicates, RNA gets transcribed, and RNA turns into proteins

125
Q

Explain How viruses disrupt the Central Dogma of Molecular Biology?

A

Because they can replicate RNA and some can go backwards in the scheme.

126
Q

Can proteins turn into RNA?

A

No

127
Q

For polio viruses, why do they need to turn their SSRNA into SSRNA -?

A

It is because it needs a template to be able to create mRNA, so it can replicate itself

128
Q

Origin Recognition Complex (ORC)

A

Found in Eukaryotes and it is the start of replication without it then it cannot be replicated.

128
Q

What is a fundamental characteristic that makes viruses from group IV to be different from group VI?

A

Viruses from group VI can turn their RNA into DNA

128
Q

How can HIV turn SSRNA + into SSDNA-?

A

They use retrotranscriptase and replicate a single strand of DNA

129
Q

Chromosomal Recognition Complex (OriC)

A

Found in Prokaryotes and it is the start of replication and without it cannot be replicated.

130
Q

DNA pol III

A

enzyme responsible for DNA replication in prokaryotes

131
Q

DNA Pol Epsilon

A

key enzymes involved in the replication of eukaryotic DNA. It plays a crucial role in synthesizing the leading strand during DNA replication.

131
Q

Spliceosome

A

RNA complex that identifies and edits introns out of a pre mRNA molecule

131
Q

Intron

A

Extra material that needs to be taken out.

132
Q

Histones

A

used to wrap the DNA to form nucleosomes

133
Q

P arm

A

shorter arm of chromosome

133
Q

Exon

A

Material that will be coded for and so needs to stay in the DNA.

134
Q

Q arm

A

longer arm of chromosome

135
Q

Centrosome

A

middle part of chromosome that holds it together

136
Q

Plasmids

A

a small circular DNA molecule found in bacteria and some other microscopic organisms.

137
Q

Mention 3 differences between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes.

A

Prokaryotes lack a nucleus, while eukaryotes have a distinct nucleus containing their DNA.

Prokaryotes have no membrane-bound organelles, whereas eukaryotes have multiple organelles like mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.

Prokaryotes are smaller and simpler in structure compared to larger and more complex eukaryotic cells.

138
Q

The difference between Orc (Eukaryotes) and Ori C (Prokaryotes)

A

Orc (Origin Recognition Complex) - A protein complex that binds to a specific DNA sequence (the origin of replication) to initiate DNA replication.

Oric - The specific DNA sequence on a bacterial chromosome where DNA replication starts, which is recognized by the Orc complex.

139
Q

If we swap the ORC with Ori C would the eukaryote be able to replicate its DNA?

A

No, because the DNA polymerase will look for the orc or ori c and won’t find it, which will prevent it from being able to replicate its DNA

140
Q

What happens if we eliminate the Ori C of prokaryotes?

A

No replication of DNA will occur

141
Q

The different components of a chromosome:

A

The p arm is the short structure of the chromosome

The q arm is the long arm structure of the chromosome

The centromere is the constricted point of the chromosome

wildlife conservation (3 decks)

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