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Genetics Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is a gamete?

A

a reproductive cell of an animal or plant. In animals, female gametes are called ova or egg cells, and male gametes are called sperm.

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2
Q

What is a zygote?

A

A zygote, also known as a fertilized ovum or fertilized egg, is the union of a sperm cell and an egg cell. The zygote begins as a single cell but divides rapidly in the days following fertilization.

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3
Q

Difference between Diploid and Haploid?

A

Haploid cells contain only one set of Chromosomes (n). Diploid, as the name indicates, contains two sets of chromosomes (2n). Haploid cells are formed by the process of meiosis.

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4
Q

Define genetics

A

Genetics is the study of genes

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5
Q

What is DNA?

A

Deoxyribonucleic acid is the molecule that carries genetic information for the development and functioning of an organism. DNA is made of two linked strands that wind around each other to resemble a twisted ladder — a shape known as a double helix.

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6
Q

What is a gene?

A

The basic unit of heredity passed from parent to child. Genes are made up of sequences of DNA and are arranged, one after another, at specific locations on chromosomes in the nucleus of cells.

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7
Q

Define Locus

A

the actual location of the gene on a region of a chromosome

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8
Q

What is sexual reproduction?

A

the production of new organisms by the combination of genetic information of two individuals of different sexes. In most species the genetic information is carried on chromosomes in the nucleus of reproductive cells called gametes, which then fuse to form a diploid zygote.

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9
Q

What is Asexual reproduction?

A

Asexual reproduction is a mode of reproduction in which a new offspring is produced by a single parent. The new individuals produced are genetically and physically identical to each other, i.e., they are the clones of their parents. Asexual reproduction is observed in both multicellular and unicellular organisms.

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10
Q

What is a chromosome?

A

A structure found inside the nucleus of a cell. A chromosome is made up of proteins and DNA organized into genes. Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

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11
Q

Define fertilization

A

The process of combining the male gamete, or sperm, with the female gamete, or ovum. The product of fertilization is a cell called a zygote.

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12
Q

What is a homologous chromosome?

A

Homologous chromosomes are made up of chromosome pairs of approximately the same length, centromere position, and staining pattern, for genes with the same corresponding loci. One homologous chromosome is inherited from the organism’s mother; the other is inherited from the organism’s father.

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13
Q

Explain Gametogenesis:

A

Gametogenesis is the production of gametes from haploid precursor cells. In animals and higher plants, two morphologically distinct types of gametes are produced via distinct differentiation programs. Animals produce a tissue that is dedicated to forming gametes, called the germ line.
Look up a diagram of this

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14
Q

What are sex chromosomes?

A

a type of chromosome involved in sex determination

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15
Q

Define Homozygous/Pure Bred

A

having inherited the same versions (alleles) of a genomic marker from each biological parent. Thus, an individual who is homozygous for a genomic marker has two identical versions of that marker.

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16
Q

Define Heterozygous (hybrid)

A

A term that describes having two different versions of the same gene. In a heterozygous genotype, each gene may have a different mutation or one of the genes may be mutated and the other one is normal.

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17
Q

Define Hybrid

A

the offspring of two plants or animals of different species or varieties, such as a mule (a hybrid of a donkey and a horse).
“the bird was a hybrid of a goose and a swan”

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18
Q

Define Genotype

A

In a broad sense, the term “genotype” refers to the genetic makeup of an organism; in other words, it describes an organism’s complete set of genes. In a more narrow sense, the term can be used to refer to the alleles, or variant forms of a gene, that are carried by an organism.

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19
Q

Define Phenotype

A

Phenotype refers to an individual’s observable traits, such as height, eye color and blood type. A person’s phenotype is determined by both their genomic makeup (genotype) and environmental factors

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20
Q

Define ratio in genetics

A

the chart of PP vs pp vs Pp A phenotypic ratio is a numerical comparison of how many offspring will have one phenotype versus another. A genotypic ratio is a numerical comparison of the allele combinations the offspring will have, such as homozygous dominant, heterozygous, or homozygous recessive.

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21
Q

Dominant Gene vs Recessive Gene

A

An allele of a gene is said to be dominant when it effectively overrules the other (recessive) allele. Eye colour and blood groups are both examples of dominant/recessive gene relationships.

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22
Q

What is the difference between a gene and an allele?

A

Genes are chunks of DNA that co tribute to particular traits or functions. Alleles are different versions of the same gene allele is a section of a gene

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23
Q

Codominance

A

A phenomenon in which two alleles are expressed to an equal degree within an organisms. As a result, traits associated with each allele are displayed simultaneously. (Like when one cat with solid colour and one cat with stripes makes a cat with solid colour and stripes at the same time)

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24
Q

Incomplete dominance

A

A form of intermediate inheritance in which one allele for a particular trait is not expressed completely over its paired allele.
Example: if a black dog and white dog make a grey dog, that is incomplete dominance
(Wavy hair)
Traits combined with

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25
Q

Haploid

A

A cell that contains a single set of chromosomes. They can also refer to the number of chromosomes in egg or sperm cells, aka gametes. They contain 23

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26
Q

Diploid

A

Two sets of chromosomes in a cell, with each parent contributing a chromosome to each pair.

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27
Q

Parts of the cell cycle

A

Interphase - Prophase - Meta - Ana - Telophase

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28
Q

Cell cycle problems

A

Disruption of normal regulation of the cell cycle can lead to diseases such as cancer. (Uncontrollable growth)

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29
Q

Stages of meiosis

A

Prophase - Metaphase 2 - Anaphase 2 - Telophase 1 - Meiosis 1 - Promeraphase - Meiosis 2 - cytokinesis

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30
Q

What is the structure of DNA

A

Double helix (nucleic acid structure)

31
Q

Abnormal meiosis

A

A baby may have an extra chromosome (trisomy) or have a missing chromosome (monosomy)

32
Q

Mitosis vs meiosis

A

Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, whereas meiosis produces cells that are genetically unique from the parent and only contain half as much DNA

meiosis creates sperm and egg cells, mitosis is the fundamental process for life

33
Q

Mendel’s experiments

A

Mendel conducted the hybridization experiments on garden peas. He cross pollinated pea plants based on their different features to make important discoveries on how traits are inherited between generations.

34
Q

Dihybrid crosses

A

A cross between two individuals with two observed traits that are controlled by two distinct genes. Ex - one parent carries homozygous dominant allele, while the other one carries homozygous recessive allele. The offspring becomes heterozygous

35
Q

What is a pedigree chart?

A

A chart that diagrams the inheritance of a trait or health condition through generations of a family. The pedigree particularly shows the relationships amount family members (like a family tree)

36
Q

X linked dominant

A

When the mother alone is the carrier of a mutated gene associated with a disease or disorder; she herself will have the disorder. Her children will inherit the disorder as follows; 50% of kids will have it, 50% wont

37
Q

X linked recessive

A

Genetic conditions associated with mutations in genes in the X chromosome. A male carrying such a mutation will be affected, because he carries only one X chromosome. A female carrying a mutation in one gene, with a normal gene on the other X chromosome is generally unaffected.

38
Q

Autosomal recessive

A

Is a way a genetic trait or condition can be passed down from parent to child. A genetic condition can occur when the child inherits one copy of the mutated gene from each parent.

39
Q

Autosomal dominant

A

Genetic trait passed down from a parent to child. One copy of a mutated gene from one parent can cause the genetic condition.

40
Q

Autosomal dominant vs recessive

A

Dominant traits pass from one parent onto their child. Recessive traits pass from both parents into child

41
Q

What’s the relationship between the following terms: Reproduction and Hereditary

A

Hereditary information is contained in genes which are passed down from parent to offspring during reproduction

42
Q

What’s the relationship between the following terms: DNA and chromosomes

A

Chromosomes carry DNA in cells.

43
Q

What’s the relationship between the following terms: Genetic information and gene

A

The genes are like a series of letters strung along, which are used as an instruction book. The letter sequence of each gene contains information on building specific molecules

44
Q

What’s the relationship between the following terms: Diploid and Haploid

A

Diploid cells contain two complete sets of chromosomes. Haploid organisms only contain one complete chromosome set.
meiosis results in the division of a diploid parental cell into a haploid cell.

45
Q

What are some biological advantages of asexual reproduction?

A
  • Rapid populating
  • energy efficient
  • does not require the combination of two sex cells
  • Bypasses juvenile characteristics of certain species
46
Q

Why is the production of genetically identical offspring a disadvantage?

A

None of the offspring will be any better adapted to their environment. the lack of variation means that if the conditions change the population may die out.

47
Q

What happens in interphase?

A

Each chromosome duplicates. They then thicken and coil.

48
Q

What happens in prophase?

A

The centrioles that have divided form asters. The nuclear membrane dissolves. The centrioles are at opposite poles. The chromosomes look like x’s

49
Q

What happens in metaphase?

A

The doubled chromosomes centrometeres attach to the spindle fibres and line up mid cell.

50
Q

What happens in anaphase?

A

The centrometeres split, one half of chromosome move to one pole, the other moves to opposite.

51
Q

What happens in telophase?

A

The cell membrane makes a cleavage furrow to make a pinch. Nuclear membranes form around the separated chromosomes

52
Q

What happens at cytokinesis?

A

There are two cells with the same structures and number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

53
Q

What is the difference between chromosome and sister chromatid?

A

A chromosome is a single molecule of DNA that stores genetic material in an organism. A sister chromatid is one of two identical DNA molecules that are formed following DNA replication. a sister chromatid is one half of a chromosome that has been replicated.

54
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Prophase I?

A
  • Chromosomes start to shorten and thicken
  • The cell membrane begins to dissolve
  • Centrioles separate and move to opposite poles of the cell.
  • Spindle fibres form
    same as mitosis
55
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Metaphase I?

A
  • The tetrads migrate toward the center of the cell and align their centrometeres across the middle
56
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Anaphase I? (Diploid and haploid)

A
  • Where reduction division occurs (going from diploid to haploid)
  • Only one chromosome from the homologous pair will be found in each new daughter cell
  • Each chromosome in the new cell consists of 2 chromatids
57
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Anaphase II?

A
  • Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite poles of the cell
  • the nuclear membrane begins to form around chromatids
58
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Telophase I?

A
  • Nuclear membranes begin to form around the chromosomes at each end of the cell and begin to divide
  • chromosomes are NOT identical
59
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Prophase II?

A
  • beginning of second division
  • nuclear membrane dissolves
  • spindle fibres form
    (Same as mitosis)
60
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Metaphase II?

A
  • Chromosomes migrate and align down the middle of the cell
  • Sister chromatids are still attached by centromeres here
61
Q

What happens to chromosomes in Telophase II and cytokineses?

A
  • the second nuclear division is completed and the second division of cytoplasm follows
  • results in four gametes that are NOT identical
62
Q

What is similar about spermatogenesis and oogenesis?

A
  • Both forms of gametogenesis (meiosis)
  • Both occur under influence of hormones
  • Both produce haploid gametes
63
Q

What is different about spermatogenesis and oogenesis?

A
  • S leads to formation of sperm, O leads to formation of Ova
  • 1 ovum produces/4 sperm produced
  • S starts after puberty while O starts during fetal life
64
Q

What is non disjunction?

A

The failure of one or more pairs of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate normally. Results in abnormal distribution of chromosomes.

65
Q

How can non disjunction lead to trisomy and monosomy?

A

If a germ cell missing a chromosome is combined with a chromosomally normal germ cell, the product will be monosomic

Because ND is when pairs of chromosomes fail to separate, it can either lead to a lack of a member or an extra member.

Mosomy (lack of one member of a chromosome pair) and trisomy (a triplet instead of the normal chromosome pair)

66
Q

Identify and describe two factors that increase the chance of a human offspring inheriting the genetic characteristic for Down syndrome

A
  • Genetic region
  • Hispanic ethnicity
  • a mature mother

Chromosomal changes

67
Q

Difference between autosomal inheritance and sex linked inheritance?

A

In SL, the genes are located on the sex chromosomes, on the other they are located on the autosomes.

autosomal inheritance involves traits from both parents equally, while sex-linked inheritance involves traits passed down through the sex chromosomes, which can affect males and females differently.

68
Q

Difference between nucleotide and nitrogenous base?

A

Think of a nucleotide as a Lego block for DNA and RNA. It’s made up of three parts: a nitrogenous base, which is like the different shapes on the Lego block, a sugar, which is like the part that connects the shapes, and a phosphate group, which is like the piece that holds everything together. Now, the nitrogenous base is like the color of the Lego block, determining what the genetic information will be. So, while nucleotides are the building blocks, the nitrogenous bases are like the special codes that tell the cell what to do.

A nucleotide is a building block of nucleic acids like DNA and RNA, consisting of a nitrogenous base, a sugar molecule, and a phosphate group. Nitrogenous bases are the components of nucleotides responsible for carrying genetic information, and they include adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T) in DNA, and uracil (U) in RNA. So, in short, a nitrogenous base is a part of a nucleotide.

69
Q

What are the three chemical conponents of DNA nucleotide? Describe arrangement within a double stranded DNA molecule

A
  • Nitrogenous base
  • Sugar molecule
  • Phosphate group

-The Sugar phosphate backbones of each strand run in opposite directions, which is referred to as antiparallel orientation
- NB of one strand pair with the other through hydrogen bonds.
- the specific pairing of the NB makes DNA structure

70
Q

Monohybrid cross

A

A monohybrid cross is any cross involving just one gene. For example, a monohybrid cross would use only one characteristic from Mendel’s pea plants (e.g. pea color) or look for a single inherited disease in humans (e.g. Huntington’s disease).

A monohybrid cross is a cross between two organisms with different variations at one genetic locus of interest. The character being studied in a monohybrid cross are governed by two or multiple variations for a single location of a gene.

71
Q

F1 generation

A

The parents are quite distinct: one is homozygous dominant for both traits, and the other is homozygous recessive for both traits. All such offspring show dominant characteristics for both traits.
Ex: PP x TT

72
Q

F2 generation

A

The F2 generation is defined as the result of a cross between two F1 individuals. The 3:1 ratio was discovered through Gregor Mendel’s experiments over three generations. Ex: BB, Bb, Bb, bb

73
Q

What are the levels of organization

A

Cells, Tissues, organ, organ system, organism, population, community, ecosystem, biosphere

Biology (4 decks)

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