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Biology 11U > Genetics > Flashcards

Genetics Flashcards

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1
Q

What does DNA stand for?

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

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2
Q

What is DNA?

A

A type of molecule called a polymer. Polymers are long chains of repeating subunits. Made up of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and phosphorus atoms.

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3
Q

What are nucleotides?

A

Nucleotides are made up of deoxyribose (sugars), a phosphate group and one of 4 different ringed-nitrogen bases. Nucleotides link together to form a long chain. Phosphodiester bond links nucleotides together. This forms what is called the sugar-phosphate backbone.

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4
Q

What are nitrogen bases?

A

2 types of nitrogen bases; Purines which have a double ring structure and pyrimidines which have a single ring structure. The sequence of the nitrogen bases in the DNA molecule is what converys info.

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5
Q

What part of DNA is double stranded?

A

A complete DNA molecule is formed when 2 chains link together by hydrogen bonds formed between complementary nitrogen on each strand. Hydrogen bonds are NOT a chemical bond but rather a very strong intermolecular force. This allows the two strands of DNA to separate and rejoin.

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6
Q

Do DNA strands have a direction?

A

The carbons of the deoxyribose sugar ring are numbered. The sugar-phosphate backbone is formed specifically at the 5’ and 3’ carbons. This causes one end of a DNA strand to have an open 5’ C and the other end to have an open 3’ C.

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7
Q

How is DNA built?

A

Double stranded DNA twists into a helix. The sugar-phosphate backbone wraps around the outside while the nitrogen bases are tucked inside. The DNA molecule twists in such a way that it forms a major groove and a minor groove. This allows for specific binding enzymes and proteins such as histones to the DNA.

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8
Q

What is DNA made up off?

A

DNA is packed into chromosomes. Prokaryotic cells have one singular circular chromosome. Eukaryotic cells have multiple pairs of linear chromosomes contained within the nucleus. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 linear pieces. Each chromosome is a specific length and has a very similar partner with the exception of the 23rd pair of sex chromosomes.

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9
Q

What is a karyotype?

A

DNA is very narrow and difficult to see. When condensed, chromosomes can be stained and photographed. These photographs can be used to create a karyotype.

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10
Q

What are atypical chromosome numbers?

A

In most cases, a human embryo with an atypical number of chromosomes does not survive and the mother has a miscarriage. An example of this is Trisomy, a condition in which an individual has: three copies of a particular chromosome.

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11
Q

What is non-disjuction?

A

When homologous chromosomes do not separate during anaphase I or II of meiosis, non-disjuctuion occurs. This results in gametes with either missing or extra chromosomes. If abnormal gamete produced by a non-disjunction event unites with a normal gamete in fertilization, the result is a zygote that contains an atypical # of chromosomes.

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12
Q

What is the prep. and division of DNA?

A

Before a cell can undergo division, it must duplicate its DNA to ensure that each daughter cell has a complete copy of all the genetic info needed for the cell to function.

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13
Q

What is the control of the cell cycle?

A

The timing and regulation of cell division are critical for normal growth and development. A control system that depends on specific proteins within the cell regulates the sequence of events. Checkpoints are set up which help to detect mutations or potential problems with the cell during the cycle.

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14
Q

What are the checkpoints of the cell cycle?

A

Restriction point which is the start and is influenced by growth factors, nutrients, cell size and DNA damage. The S phase which is DNA synthesis. The G2-M transition which is influenced by the cell size, DNA damage and DNA replication. Then the Metaphase-Anaphase Transition which is influenced by chromosome attachments to spindle. Then the G1 phase.

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15
Q

What is cancer and how is it caused?

A

Genetic mutations in the cell cycle regulation system can result in uncontrolled and unregulated cell division. Cells reproducing at the wrong time, or in the wrong place, may form a mass of cells called a tumour. Malignant tumours result from the reproduction of cancer cells. Can spread cancer cells to other tissue or organs in the body.

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16
Q

What is mitosis and asexual reproduction?

A

Single-celled organisms reproduce by simple cell division. This process, known as asexual reproduction, produces genetic clones. Somatic cells of multicellular organisms use mitosis and cell division to seperate. This facilitates growth and repair.

17
Q

What is PMAT?

A

Prophase: nucleus is still there, chromosomes are condensing, visible chromosomes
Metaphase: chromosome line up in the middle of the cell, nucleus=disassembled
Anaphase: chromosomes move away to opp. sides of the cell, spindle fibers
Telophase: chromosomes at the opp. ends, new nucleus are formin, forms 2 identical cells.

18
Q

How does PMAT work together?

A

Mitosis occurs in the M phase of the cell cycle. The length of the M phase depends on the type of cell and can vary from a few minutes to several days.

19
Q

What is cytokinesis?

A

The process by which the cytoplasm is divided along with all organelles.

20
Q

What is the sexual reproduction for the cell?

A

In sexual reproduction each offspring is a unique combination of genetic material from 2 parents. Meiosis is a form of cell division which produces 4 gametes. A gamete from the male parent (sperm) fertilizes a gamete from the female parent (ovum) to create a zygote.

21
Q

What is meiosis?

A

In meiosis a single round of DNA replication is followed by 2 stages of cell divisions: meiosis I and meiosis II. Each phase is similar to its counterpart in mitosis,however, the result of meiosis is 4 cells with half the number of chromosomes.

22
Q

What are homologous chromosomes?

A

Somatic cells contain a very similar pair of each chromosome, one inherited from the mom and one from the dad. The 2 chromosomes of each matching pair are called homologous chromosomes.

23
Q

What is the division of chromosomes?

A
  • During prophase I each duplicated chromosome pairs with its corresponding homologous chromosome, forming a tetrad.
  • During metaphase I the tetrads line up at the metaphase plate
  • During anaphase I homologous chromosomes are separated while sister chromosomes remain attached at the centromere
  • In anaphase II the sister chromatids move to opp. parts of the cell
24
Q

What is the diploid number?

A

Diploid cells contain a pair of each chromosome. Somatic cells are diploid. Humans have 23 different chromosomes. Haploid cells contain a single copy of each chromosome. Gamete cells are haploid. Mitosis produces diploid daughter cells and meiosis produces haploid daughter cells.

25
Q

What is inheritance?

A

A trait is a characteristic of an organism. Some traits you are born with (inherited) while some are acquired throughout life. Genes are units of inherited information that carry a code for specific traits or functions. This genetic info is responsible for inheritance.

26
Q

What are mendelian genetics?

A

In the 1850’s, an Austrian monk named Gregor Mendal began a series of experiments spanning 7 years which would help explain basic inheritance patterns. He did his research with pea plants, he studied dominant and recessive patterns. Law of Independent Assortment states that genes that segregate independently in meiosis do not influence each other’s inheritance.

27
Q

Which bases are purines?

A

Adenine and guanine

28
Q

Which bases are pyrimidine?

A

Cytosine and thymine

29
Q

What is the sugar phosphate backbone of DNA formed between?

A

Deoxyribose and phosphate

30
Q

What is the name for the bead of DNA and protein that protect the genetic information and prevent tangling?

A

Nucleosomes

31
Q

What is a section of DNA, mRNA and tRNA that is 3 bases long?

A

Codon

32
Q

When does apoptosis occur?

A

Apoptosis occurs if a problem with the cell is detected at a checkpoint, it results in the cell being destroyed.

Biology 11U (3 decks)

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