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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what does DNA stand for?

A

deoxyribonucleic acid

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2
Q

what are the four base in DNA?

A

Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Cytosine

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3
Q

draw a diagram of a section of DNA?

A
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4
Q

what is the definition of chromosome ?

A

a single chain of DNA that has been coiled up into a thread like structure

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5
Q

Define the term gene?

A

a specific section within DNA which codes for a specific protein

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6
Q

what are introns ?

A

non coding genes that regulate gene expression

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6
Q

what are exons ?

A

coding genes for DNA

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7
Q

what is semi conservative replication ?

A

the original double stranded will divide into two parent stands and then join with a new strand

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8
Q

what is the process of unwinding ?

A

DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between the nucleotide
the point after which the strands are separated is known as the replication fork

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9
Q

what does DNA polymerase do ?

A

collect nucleotides and matches them with the complimentary pairs on the parent strand running a 5-3 prime direction

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10
Q

what is the leading strand ?

A

the strand that is replicating in the direction of unwinding

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11
Q

what is the lagging strand?

A

strands replicating in the reverse direction

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12
Q

what does Primase do?

A

creates short segments of primers which bind to make up the sections of DNA

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13
Q

what are individual section of primers called ?

A

Okazaki fragments

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14
Q

what does DNA ligase do ?

A

a glue that seals the nucleotides together to make a continuous strand

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15
Q

what is the cell cycle ?

A

Gap 1
Synthesis
Gap 2
Mitosis

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16
Q

what is the process of mitosis ?

A

IPMAT

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17
Q

what is interphase ?

A

cell growth
production of organelles
DNA replication
produces proteins necessary for mitosis

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18
Q

what is prophase ?

A

chromosomes condense and become visible
each chromosome is comprised of 2 chromatids
spindle fibres begin to form
nuclear membrane begins to form

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19
Q

what is metaphase?

A

chromosomes line up along the equator

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20
Q

what is anaphase?

A

spindle fibres attach to the centromeres
spindle fibre pull chromatids to opposite pole of the cell

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21
Q

what is telophase ?

A

chromatids group together
2 new nuclear membranes for
chromosomes unravel
Cytokinesis occurs

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22
Q

what is cytokinesis in animals ?

A

membranes move inwards pinching two daughter cells apart

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23
Q

what is cytokinesis in plants ?

A

cell membrane and wall is created

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24
Q

what is the role of DNA?

A

to provide the blue prints for proteins

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25
Q

what is different about RNA to DNA?

A

made of ribose sugar instead of deoxyribose
single stranded instead of double
uracil instead of thymine
normally shorter the DNA

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26
Q

what does transcription make ?

A

mRNA

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27
Q

what is the process of transcription?

A
  • a small section of DNA is unwound and the hydrogen bonds are broken by helicase to expose the nucleotides
  • RNA polymerase goes along and picks up free nucleotides and binds it to the complimentary base to form the mRNA
  • RNA polymerase and the mRNA detaches whilst the DNA zips back up
    -mRNA exits the nucleus through a nuclear pore.
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28
Q

what prime does RNA polymerase run and why ?

A

3-5 prime
so add RNA nucleotides instead of DNA nucleotides

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29
Q

where does RNA polymerase start and stop?

A

Promoter sequence
Terminator sequence

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30
Q

what is the methylated cap?

A
  • an alter nucleotide that binds to the 5’ end
    -acts as a signalling molecule that can be reached by ribosomes
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31
Q

What is the poly A-tail?

A
  • a sequence of many adenosines joined to the 3’ end
    -help stabilise and protect the mRNA
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32
Q

what is splicing ?

A

the process of removing introns and joining exons together

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33
Q

what is alternating splicing?

A

controls which exons are spliced together

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34
Q

what is translation?

A

the process of creating proteins from a template in the ribosome

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35
Q

what is the process of translation?

A

-the methylated cap allow the ribosome to attache to mRNA
-the ribosome reads three nucleotides at time called a codon
-tRNA then get the anticodon that matched the codon
-the tRNA has amino acids that join together to form polypeptide chains
-the polypeptide the coils up to for proteins

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36
Q

what is meiosis?

A

the process where a single cell divide twice to form 4 daughter cells.

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37
Q

what is the process of meiosis?

A

Prophase 1
metaphase1
anaphase 1
telophase 1
cytokines 1
Prophase 2
metaphase 2
anaphase 2
telophase 2
cytokines 2

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38
Q

what is prophase 1 ?

A

-homologous chromosomes pair up

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39
Q

what is metaphase 1?

A

-homologous pairs line up on the equator
-spindle fibres attach

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40
Q

what is anaphase 2?

A

-homologous chromosomes pulled to seperate side of the cell
-chromosomes copy and go to one side

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41
Q

what is telophase 1?

A

2 haploid cells begin to formed

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42
Q

what is cytokinesis ?

A
  • 2haploid cell formed
43
Q

what is prophase 2?

A
  • spindle fibres join perpendicular to the first set of chromosomes
44
Q

what is metaphase 2?

A

-chromosomes line up along the equator
-perpendicular to the first set

45
Q

what is anaphase 2?

A

-chromosomes split at the centromere
-sister chromatids to seperate sides

46
Q

what is telophase 2?

A

4 haploid daughter cells

47
Q

what is the definition of gene expression?

A

different environment can effect organisms phenotypes even if they have the same genotype

48
Q

what can effect gene expression?

A

different food, exercise, temperature, acidity, alkalinity

49
Q

what is epigenetics?

A

the study of chemical modifications to the gene function that are not due to DNA sequencing changes

50
Q

what is a mutation?

A

any change to the DNA sequence

51
Q

what is a spontaneous mutation ?

A

during DNA replication there is chance for the wrong base to be copied

52
Q

what is the definition of mutagens?

A

a substance that induces a higher then normal rate of mutation

53
Q

what are the three categories of a mutagen ?

A

physical
chemical
biological

54
Q

what are some example of physical mutagens and what do they do to cause a mutagen ?

A
  • radiation: causes damage to the DNA
  • UV light: distort the double helix
    -x-ray: breaking or severing the DNA strands
55
Q

what are chemical mutagens ?

A
  • substitution of bases with other chemical or attaching chemical makers
  • causes replication error, prevents transcription, enables transcription of different proteins
56
Q

what are biological mutagens?

A

mutations caused by invasive pathogens such as bacteria and viruses

57
Q

what are the types of mutagens

A

neutral: no affect to the coded product
deleterious : stop or alter the production of the protein

58
Q

what is a point mutation ?

A

a change in DNA where only one nucleotide is altered

59
Q

what are the types of point mutations ?

A
  • silent
  • neutral
  • missense
  • nonsense
60
Q

what is a substitution mutation?

A

when one nucleotide is replaced by another

61
Q

what is a silent mutation?

A

no change has occurred to the codon

62
Q

what is the neutral mutation ?

A

a change has occurred but it still codes for the same amino acid

63
Q

what is a missense mutation?

A

a mutation that has occurred resulting in a different amino acid being formed

64
Q

what is a nonsense mutation?

A

when the mutation causes a new stop codon to be formed

65
Q

what is an insertion ?

A

the adding of an extra base

66
Q

what is deletion ?

A

the removal of a base

67
Q

what are some chromosomal mutations?

A

chromosomal deletion
chromosomal inversion
duplication
translocation

68
Q

what is chromosomal deletion?

A

a section os DNA is removed

69
Q

what is chromosomal inversion?

A

a break in a chromosome occurs and then is reattached the wrong way

70
Q

what is chromosomal duplication?

A

a section of chromosome occurs twice

71
Q

what is chromosomal translocation?

A

part of the chromosome breaks off and reattaches to the wrong chromosome

72
Q

what are the four ways variation occurs?

A

mutations
crossing over
independent assortment of chromosomes
sexual reproduction

73
Q

what is crossing over?

A

The exchange of genes from the maternal and paternal chromosomes creates new genetic combination

74
Q

what is the law of independent assortment ?

A

Chromosomes seperate independently of each other during meiosis which creates various different chromosomal combinations

75
Q

what is sexual reproduction ?

A

fertilisation of 2 gamete occurs randomly

76
Q

what is sexual selection ?

A

selection arising through preference of an individual characteristics

77
Q

what is co-dominance?

A

both alleles are observed in the organism eg roan cows

78
Q

what is incomplete dominance?

A

when two genes are present but neither are dominant eg pink flowers

79
Q

what are multiple alleles ?

A

when there are more then 2 alleles for any particular characteristics eg blood groups

80
Q

what is sex-linked inheritance ?

A

characteristics that are carried on the sex chromosomes

81
Q

what is monogenetic inheritance ?

A

when a characteristic is controlled by one pair of gene eg curly or straight hair

82
Q

what is polygenetic inheritance?

A

controlled by more then one gene

83
Q

what is transgenic organism?

A

organisms that have had the DNA of a different species inserted into their genome

84
Q

what are genetically modified organisms?

A

organisms that have had their DNA modified

85
Q

what are restriction enzymes?

A

they cut the DNA at the recognition site to remove a certain section of DNA

86
Q

what are sticky ends ?

A

they have over hanging ends that ensure DNA is inserted the correct way

87
Q

what are blunt ends?

A

DNA cut straight across

88
Q

what is ligation?

A

DNA ligase joins the DNA strands together to form recombination DNA

89
Q

what is recombinant DNA used for ?

A

the production of insulin, human growth hormone, vaccines

90
Q

how are GMOS produced ?

A

-DNA is inserted in to a vector
- Vectors are inserted to the host cell
- host cells incorporate recombinant DNA with their own DNA

91
Q

what are agrobacteriums ?

A

they are used to transfer foreign DNA into plants

92
Q

what are transgenic organisms used for?

A

pesticides/herbicides
prevent breeding
control feral animals
process of oil
disease resistant crops
vaccines

93
Q

what is DNA profiling ?

A

a technique used to compare two or more bases sequences using short tandem repeats

94
Q

what are short tandem repeats?

A

section in DNA that are non coding that get repeated

95
Q

what is the process of genetic finger printing

A

-extract DNA from a sample
-STRs cut into sections using restriction enzymes
- amplified using PCR
-separated fragments through gel electrophoresis

96
Q

what is the process of gel electrophoresis ?

A

-DNA is cut up using restriction enzymes
-fluorescent dye is added into samples
-samples are added into gel wells on the negative electrode end
-electricity is through the gel allowing the negatively charged DNA to attach to the positive electrodes
-DNA is viewed under UV light which cause it to go fluorescent

97
Q

what is the definition of DNA sequencing?

A

determining the order of the nitrogen bases that make up the DNA molecule

98
Q

what is the process of DNA sequencing (Sanger method) ?

A
  1. denature the DNA
    -heat up the stand to 98c
  2. annealing the primer
    -adding primers and reducing the temperature to 50c to allow primer to join to the single strand of DNA
  3. synthesise the strand
    -temperature is increased to 60c allowing the polymerase to synthesise the complementary base until a terminator base is added
  4. denaturing
    -temperature is increased to 96c to seperate the synthesised DNA from the template
  5. cycles
    -repeat step 1-4 util there are enough strands
  6. fragments separated by gel electrophoresis in a cepillary tube
    -smaller fragment reach the end first
  7. fluorescing
    -at the end, bases pass through a lazer causing them to go fluorescent to determine the terminator base
99
Q

what is a terminator base?

A

a free nucleotide with an altered sugar that prevent a longer chain from forming it has a fluorescent tag on it to identify

100
Q

when is polymerase chain reaction (PCR) used?

A

when there is not enough DNA to be tested

101
Q

what is the process of polymerase chain reaction (PCR) ?

A
  1. denaturing
    - heated to 95c
    -DNA separates into 2 complimentary strands
  2. annealing
    -primers are added and cooled between 50-60c causing primer to bind to a single strand of DNA
  3. synthesis
    -DNA polymerase is added and free nucleotides and heated to 72c
    -DNA polymerase binds free nucleotides together to form a new section of DNA
102
Q

what does DNA profiling do in agriculture ?

A
  • disease resistant
    -faster growth rate
    -more quality and quantity
    -tolerance to adverse conditions
103
Q

what are the desirable traits of GMOs?

A

-resistance
-faster growth rate
-greater product quality and yield
-tolerance to adverse environmental conditions

104
Q

what are the benefits to GMOs?

A

-improved crop productivity
-improved nutritional value
-better flavour
-fresher for longer
-less herbicides and pesticides on feed

105
Q

how does DNA profiling and sequencing used in conservation ?

A

monitoring endangered species
assessing gene pools for breading programs
tracking change in biodiversity
quarantine
GMOs in conservation
control of disease vectors
control of feral pest

106
Q

what are adverse effects of biotechnology ?

A

-effects non target organisms
-more rapid evolution of pesticide resistant species
-the possibility of gene flow from crop species to weed species resulting in super weeds

biology (8 decks)

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