General Psychology - Chapter 2/ Flashcards
What era was called the Decade of the the Brain?
1990’s (Neuropsychologists learned more about the brain during this time than the previous of all history time)
What two things determine behavior?
How the brain works or doesn’t work
What are the starting points of all behavior, thought, and emotion?
The electrical and chemical activities of the neuron
Behavioral Neuroscience
Psychological processes are linked to activities in the nervous systems and other bodily processes.
Other names for Behavioral Neuroscience.
Biopsychology or biological psychology
Clinical neuropsychology
Psychology which focuses on understanding brain behavior relationships, especially abnormal brain functioning and application of this knowledge to human problems
Without biological processes, there is no behavior. T or F
True
(SCN) Social Cognitive Nueruoscience
Includes Disciplines of Social, Developmental, & Cognitive Psychologies, Evolutionary Biology, Neuropsychology and computer science
Neuron
Basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system
Which cells receive and transmit information from one part of the body to another?
Neuron
Which cell is known as the building block of the nervous system?
Neuron
Name the 3 Basic functional kinds of neurons that have been identified so far?
Sensory, Motor and Interneurons
Sensory Neurons
Detect stimuli in the body and transmit the information to sensory receptors and then to the brain
Motor Neurons
Send the commands (motorize) them from the brain to the glands, muscles and organs to do something, cease or inhibit something
Interneurons
Connect (intertwine) other neurons to each other
Which neurons are linked to form reflex responses?
Sensory and Motor
Mirror Neuron Systems
Recently discovered these neurons become active when a human or animal observes another human or animal performing a behavior. These are found in the frontal lobe and support processes of social cognition, speech perception, and action understanding.
(Neuron) Cell body is also called ____
Soma
(Neuron) Cell body defined.
Provides energy for the neuron to carry out its function
(Neuron) Dendrites
Short, branching fibers (fingers) that extend out from the neuron’s cell body and receive the information from other neurons or sensory receptors
(Neuron) Axon
Single elongated fiber (tube encased by myelin sheath) that carries the neuron’s messages to other neurons, glands and muscles (connects to other neurons literally).
Which part of the neuron can be a few thousandths of an inch to nearly 3 feet in length?
Axon
(Neuron) Myelin Sheath
White, fatty covering that insulates the axons from one another and increases the neurons communication speed.
When does Myelination (forming of myelins) take place during and individuals development?
After birth through the first 3 years of life the wiring of the nervous system occurs.
What can happen when a myelin sheath deteriorates or the transmission from one neuron to the other slows down?
Disease occurs, such as (MS) multiple sclerosis
Nodes of Ranvier
Gaps in the myelin sheath
Name the 2 kinds of cells in the nerve tissue.
Neurons & glial cells
Glial Cells
Supply the support, nutrients, and insulation for the neurons and are important in the formation, function, plasticity, and elimination of synapses in the nervous system.
What is known to hold the the nervous system together?
glial cells of which make up the myelin sheath
Neurons, not the glial cells, make up half of the brain’s total mass. T or F
False. It is the glial cells that make up half of this total mass.
What is the activity in the nervous system called?
Electrochemical activity
(EEG) Electroencephalogram
Instrument used to measure the electrical activity in the nervous system
Action Potential
Brief electrical impulse where messages are gathered by Dendrites and Cell Body then transmitted through the Axon. (Firing of neurons)
Electrical activity in the nervous system takes place inside the neuron. T or F
False. It takes place as a result of the activity of the neurochemicals surrounding and inside the neurons.
Axon Depolarizing begins ___ ____
Action Potential
Name the 3 sequences of Action Potential.
1) Sodium channels close/Potassium channels open (Potassium ions exit) 2) Potassium channels close 3) Sequence continues down the entire length of axons
Polarized vs. Depolarized Neurons mean what?
Polarized (resting state of a neuron); Depolarized (firing state of a neuron)
When does Resting Potential occur?
When a neuron is polarized (Axon is more negatively charged than the fluid (myelin sheath) surrounding the axon this potential occurs.
The difference in concentration of ions inside and outside the neuron’s cell membrane leads to ___ ___
Resting Potential
Neurons carry a positive (+) or negative (-) charge. T or F
False. These are ions (ION positively entertaining)
In a Resting Potential state, IONS and POTASSIUM (K), inside the neutrons have higher concentrations of _____ charges and lower concentrations of _______ outside the neutron.
Positive; (K) Potassium
What concentration is the basis for Resting Potential?
(K) Potassium
What two factors affect the speed of Action Potential?
Axon diameter and myelin sheath (Thicker axons and myelinated axons fire at faster speeds.
Break points that look like sausage links between the clumps on an axon are called ____ of ______
Nodes of Ranvier
Salutatory conduction
When the electrical current passes down the length of myelinated axon, the charge jumps from node to node (Node of Ranvier) and speed the flow of information down the axon.
Synapse
The point of communication between two neurons
PRE-synaptic Neuron
The “message-sending” neuron
POST-synaptic Neuron
The “message-receiving” neuron
The gap between the Presynaptic and Postsynaptic Neurons that is filled with fluid.
Synaptic Gap
Name the two types of transmission of information that occurs between neurons.
Electrical and chemical transmissions
Electrical Transmission
Where the ions channel the bridge for the narrow gap (synaptic) between neurons-communication happens instantaneously.
Chemical Transmission
Chemical substance diffuses across the synaptic gap from the presynaptic neuron to the postsynaptic neuron
More than 99% of synapses in the brain use chemical transmissions. T or F
True
Tiny pouches or sacs in the axon terminal are called ___ ____
Synaptic Vesicles
Neurotransmitters
Special chemical messengers located in the synaptic vesicles.
When are neurotransmitters released into the synaptic gap?
When the neural impulse reaches the axon terminal
Synaptic Transmission
Process when the neurotransmitters are released by one neuron, crosses the synaptic gap and affect the surrounding neurons and attach to the receptor sites on the Dendrites.
Reuptake
(RE-UP) Neurotransmitter molecules detach from a postsynaptic neuron and are REABSORBED by a presynaptic neuron and RECYCLED
What 2 things can occur AFTER Synaptic Transmission?
1) Reuptake 2) Neurotransmitter degrades
Name the 2 MESSAGES that a neurotransmitter communicates to a POSTsynaptic neuron.
1) Excitatory 2) Inhibitory
Excitatory Message
Increase in the likelihood that a neuron will fire (Gets excited)
Inhibitory Message
Decrease in the likelihood that a neuron will fire (Inhibited by something)
All nervous system activity depends on ____ and ____ transmission.
Neurotransmitters; synaptic
Treatment for mental disorders such as depression and schizophrenia use drugs that act like certain ______ in order to target certain brain pathways.
neurotransmitters
_______ and ________ are involved in many cellular functions of the immune system
Neurotransmitters and nueromodulators
Name the 7 Important Neurotransmitters in daily brain functioning.
Dopamine, Serotonin, Norepinephrine, Acetylcholine, GABA, Glutamate, Endorphins (No DopES GAG) NDESGAG
Which neurotransmitter’s function produces sensations of pleasure and reward?
Dopamine (its DOPE)
This neurotransmitter is used by the central nervous system neurons involved in voluntary movement, attention, motivation, reward and memory.
Dopamine
High levels are linked to schizophrenia and is associated with an imbalance of this neurotransmitter
Dopamine
Low levels are linked to Parkinson’s Disease and is associated with an imbalance of this neurotransmitter
Dopamine
Name the substances that affect the action of the Dopamine Transmitter.
Cocaine, Ampheteamine, Ritalin, Alcohol
This neurotransmitter regulates sleep and dreaming, mood, pain, aggression, appetite and sexual behavior
Serotonin
Name some problems associated with an imbalance an a low level of Serotonin.
Depression, Certain Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive-compulsive disorders
Problems linked to high blood pressure, depression, mood depressant have been linked to an imbalance of this neurotransmitter.
Norepinephrine
This neurotransmitter helps control mood and arousal in the autonomic nervous system and by neurons in almost every region of the brain.
Norepinephrine
Name the PRIMARY Neurotransmitter that is used by neurons carrying messages from the central nervous system that may regulate attention, learning, memory, sleeping and dreaming.
Acetylcholine
These substances can affect the action of this neurotransmitter _______: Nicotine, black widow spider venom, Botulism, Curare, Atropine
Acetylcholine
They currently market atropine for the use of __ __ __
IBS
The primary INHIBITORY neurotransmitter in the neurons of the central nervous system
(GABA) Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid
An imbalance or low level of ______ is associated with problems such as Anxiety, Epilepsy, Seizures, tremors and insomnia.
GABA
The primary EXCITATORY neurotransmitter in the central nervous system involved in learning and memory ________.
Glutamate
High levels of ______- can cause brain damage and stroke, over stimulation of the brain causing migraines or seizures.
Glutamate
Pleasurable sensations and control of pain that act within pain pathways and emotion centers of the brain are the function of _______ neurotransmitters.
Endorphins
Neuropharmacology
The study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system.
_______ increases the release of _____. (neurotransmitters)
Amphetamine; Norepinephrine
(Psychiatric Drugs) ________ block the reuptake of norepinephrine, dopamine or seratonin.
Tricyclics
Physotigmine blocks the enzyme _____, which breaks down acetylcholine (ACh) into acetate and choline and prolongs the effects at the synapse.
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Receptor Antagonists
Bind to the receptor sites on the neurons and block (go against) the normal action of the transmitter.
Give an example of a Receptor Antagonist.
Curare (arrow tip poison, used by South American Indians to paralyze their prey and prevents muscle contraction. Also Nicotine!
Name some Postsynaptic Receptors
Physostigmine, Nerve Gas
Name some Receptor Antagonists that block the normal action of the receptor.
Curare, nicotine
When the _____ transmission of the nerve action goes wrong the nervous system will malfunction.
chemical
Name the root cause of a large number of neurological and psychiatric disorders.
Defective neurotransmission
Name the 2 main divisions of the NERVOUS SYSTEM.
Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System
The large bundle of neuron axons are _____
Nerves
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the ___ and ___ ___ which are surrounded by ____ fluid for protection.
brain; spinal cord; cerbrospinal
The ______ contains structures that support the most complex perceptual, motor, emotional and cognitive functions of the nervous system.
Brain
What receives sensory information from the environment, processes and coordinates this information and sends commands to the skeletal and muscular systems for action?
CNS Central Nervous System
What reflexes are produced by the spinal cord without any brain involvement?
Spinal reflexes
The simplest ___ ____, includes a 3 neuron loop in which a sensation is sent through a sensory neuron through the spinal cord to an interneuron that relays the information in the spinal cord and communicates it to the motor neuron to distribute the action.
Spinal reflexes (3 neuron loop-sensory neuron, interneuron, motor neuron)
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) includes all of the ____ lying outside the CNS.
Nerves
Name the two divisions of the PNS.
1) Somatic Nervous System 2) Autonomic Nervous system
Somatic Nervous System
One division of the PNS that communicates the SENSORY information received by the SENSORY RECEPTORS to the CNS along the MOTOR NERVES to perform voluntary muscle movements.
Autonomic Nervous System
One division of the PNS that regulates INVOLUNTARY functions.
Name a few examples of INVOLUNTARY functions of the autonomic nervous system.
Heartbeat, blood pressure, breathing and digestion
Name the 2 branches of autonomic nervous system.
1) Sympathetic nervous system 2) Parasympathetic nervous system
Sympathetic nervous system
A branch of autonomic nervous system in PNS that has the flight-or-fight responses (responds emotionally).
Parasympathetic nervous system
A branch of the autonomic nervous system in PNS that maintains the body’s physical resources.
Developments in _________ have made it possible to investigate the differential involvement of brain regions in normal and disordered thought in humans.
In the past quarter century, neuroimaging.
Autonomic structures can be observed through which 2 imaging techniques?
CAT and MRI
Neuropsychologists can observe energy use through what 2 imaging techniques?
PET and MEG
Blood and water movement are observed through which imagining technique?
fMRI
Neuropsychologists use ___ to observe the elecrical activity of the brain.
EEG
What is a neuroscience fad that allows data-dredging and confirmation bias to affect study outcomes?
Cognitive brain mapping
Microelectrode Techniques
Study the functions of individual neurons
Macroelectrode Techniques
Obtains a picture of the activity in a specific region of the brain
Bipolar Electrodes
Stimulates specific brain areas and notes the behavioral effects
EEG
Electroencephalograph - uses electrodes to observe electrical activity of the brain
PET
Positron Emission Tomography - Measures over several minutes the average amount of neural activity in different brain regions by showing each region’s consumption of sugar glucose
What is considered the brain’s chemical fuel?
Sugar glucose
fMRI
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging used to measure over a few seconds the average neural activity in different brain regions by showing fluctuations in blood oxygen levels; blood and water movement
MRI
Magnetic Response Imaging used to produce a 3 dimensional image of the brain’s soft tissues by detecting magnetic activity from nuclear particles in the brain molecules.
CAT
Takes thousands of XRAY photographs of the brain them combines them to construct a cross sectional brain picture
Bilateral Symmetry
Two equal halves that mirror each image exactly
Midline
Middle of the nervous system
Structures closer to the midline of the nervous system are ___
medial
Structures further away from the midline of the nervous system are ____
lateral
Structures on opposite sides of the midline of the nervous system are ____
contralateral (right eye is contralateral to the left eye)
Name the 3 parts of the brain.
Cerebrum, cerebellum and the brain stem.
What consists of the medulla, the pons and the cerebellum?
Hindbrain
The brainstem is made up of what 2 things?
Hindbrain and midbrain
Which part of the brain relays information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord and the cerebellum and from the spinal cord and cerebellum to the cerebrum?
Brainstem
Which part of the brain regulates vital functions such as breathing, consciousness and the control of body temperature?
Brainstem
Which part of the brain controls vital Autonomic functions such as heart rate, breathing, vomiting, coughing, sneezing and digestion?
MedullA
Which part of the brain lies directly above the spinal cord?
Medulla
Which part of the brain lies directly above the medulla?
The pons
This term means “bridge” in Latin and is the area of the brain where the large bundles of axons connect with the cerebellum here.
The pons
Centers for several cranial nerves are located in the ___.
Pons
(RAS) Reticular Activating System
Where neurons project up to higher brain centers and down to the spinal cord.
This regulates attention and sleep and is the system used by the medulla and pons.
Reticular Activating System RAS
Latin for “little brain”
Cerebellum
A movement control center that has extensive connections with the cerebrum and the spinal cord.
Cerebellum
This part of the brain is involved in balance control, muscle tone, coordinated muscle movements and learning automatic movements and motor skills.
Cerebellum
Visual and auditory sensory information is processed through this part of the brain and is the relay station for incoming sensory information.
Midbrain
Dopamine producing neurons and motor control are features of this part of the midbrain
Substantia nigra
A series of cavities that are filled with cerebral spinal fluid that is recycled several times a day and cushion and protect the brain, remove waste materials and transport hormones and other biochemicals.
Ventricles
The largest and most complex brain region.
Forebrain
Means “covering” in relation to the brain
Cortex
Known as “gray matter” or the grayish, quarter inch thick, wrinkled outer portion of the brain.
Cerebral cortex
What connects the the cerebral cortex to other brain regions and extends down from the cerebral cortex known as “white matter”
Myelinated axons
The cerebral cortex contributes to cognition and emotion and makes up approx. half of the brain volume. T or F
False. Myelinated axons make up half of this.
Which cortex is known as the “neo (new) cortex”
Cerebral cortex
Which cortex contains approx. 70% of the neurons in the CNS?
Cerebral cortex
Name the largest bundle of nerve fibers that connect the 2 Cerebral Hemispheres
Corpus Callosum
What is the major communication link between the left and right cerebral hemispheres?
Corpus Callosum
The cerebrum is divided into two cerebral hemispheres and each of these are divided into ___ regions called ___.
4; lobes
Name the 4 lobes in each of the hemispheres of the cerebrum:
Frontal, Parietal, Occipital, Temporal
Name the largest lobe of the cerebral cortex that is located behind and above the eyes and is involved in planning, initiating, and executing voluntary movements.
Frontal lobe
When individuals suffer strokes or injury to this lobe their ability to make judgments and control their emotions is often impaired.
Frontal lobe
Information about taste and odor resides in the ___ ____
Orbitofrontal cortex
At the back of the frontal lobe is this tissue that is involved in motor movements and sends the commands from the brain to go to the muscles on the opposite side of the body.
Primary Motor cortex
This action oriented region processes sensory information to accomplish a specific task.
Prefrontal cortex
Located behind the Frontal lobe and above the Temporal Lobe is the ___ ___
Parietal Lobe
This lobe processes bodily, or somatosensory, information including touch, temperature, pressure and information from the muscles and joints.
Parietal Lobe
The band of tissue at the front of the Parietal Lobe that receives information from touch receptors in different parts of the body.
Somatosensory Cortex
Which 4 parts of the body are disproportionately represented and provide the most important input for the sense of touch?
Lips, tongue, thumbs and index fingers
Which regions in the Frontal Lobe and Parietal Lobe are among major areas involved in time perception?
Cortical Regions
The lobe at the back of each hemisphere that receives visual information.
Occipital Lobe
This area processes various aspects of visual stimulation_color, movement, shape, shading, etc.
Primary Visual cortex in the occipital lobe
Which area claims the greatest proportion of the visual cortex to assist with processing the various aspects of visual stimulation?
Center of each retina
Near the temples, this lobe specializes in processing auditory information.
Temporal Lobe
The Primary ______ Cortex process speech sounds and is located on the left side of the brain
Auditory
Name several structures that lie beneath the cerebral cortex in the forebrain.
Thalamus, olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, basal ganglia, hippocampus, and amygdala.
Like a pit in a cherry this part is buried in the center of the brain and is a cluster of nuclei (neurons) that perform a variety of functions.
Thalamus (piT like a cherry)
The small area located near the base of the brain that is party of the limbic system and connects the forebrain and midbrain.
Hypothalamus
Which part of the brain can regulate the secretions of hormones through its effects on the pituitary gland?
Hypothalamus
What 2 things does the hypothalamus use to convey messages to the pituitary gland to alter the release of hormones of the pituitary gland?
1) Nerves 2) Hypotalamic hormones
Basal Ganglia
Large nuclei partly surrounded by the thalamus and hypothalamus
Latin word meaning “border” that is the system that forms a border around the brainstem that plays critical roles learning, memory, motivation, and emotional control.
Limbic system
Name some of the regions that make up the Limbic System.
Hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala, (cortical and subcortical structures)
The Limbic System is involved in such behaviors such as:
Feeding, aggression, memory, emotional functioning
Match Behaviors with Part of Brain:
a) Fear and Apprehension 1) Hypothalamus
b) Learning & Memory 2) Amygdala
c) Hunger & Learning 3) Hippocampus
a) = 2
b) = 3
c) = 1
Sensory, motor and cognitive functions that are specialized to either the left or right cerebral hemisphere refers to this type of specialization________ _________.
Hemispheric Specialization
It is common for neural circuits established for one purpose to be recycled or redeployed during development for other uses without losing their original function. T or F
True
Specialization of the Left Cerebral Hemisphere include? Name at least 2.
1)Regulation of POSITIVE emotions 2) Control of muscles used in speech 3) Control of sequence of movement 4) Spontaneous speaking & writing 5) Memory for words and numbers 6) Understanding speech & writing
Specialization of the Right Cerebral Hemisphere include? Name at least 2.
1)Regulation of NEGATIVE emotions 2) Responses to simple commands 3) Memory for shapes & music 4) Recognition of faces
This French neurologist and anthropologist, provided evidence through case studies that the left hemisphere was critical in language functioning, in the 1860’s.
Paul Broca
The area on the left frontal lobe that when damaged produces speech disturbances but no loss of comprehension and was named after the neurologist and anthropologist that discovered it.
Broca’s area or motor speech area
This area was discovered by a German neurologist on the left temporal lobe of the cerebral cortex that when damage produced meaningless or nonsensical speech and difficulties in verbal and written communication
Wernicke’s area (Karl Wernicke)
Laterilization (Also called cerebral laterality)
The idea that one hemisphere exerts more control over the processing of a particular psychological function
Aphasia
The inability to articulate ideas or understand spoken language
Broca’s aphasia
Comprehension is unaffected but impossible to produce speech due to damage to the frontal lobe
Wernicke’s aphasia
Comprehension through written and spoken communication is affected but speech is possible when damage to the frontal lobe occurs.
Which part of the brain is usually cut to stop or reduce epileptic seizures? What is the surgery called?
Corpus Callosum; Split brain operation because the corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain.
Roger Sperry was an English psychologist and neuroscientist that did research on non humans to discover that the cutting of the corpus callosum did not have any effect on behavior. T or F
He was American
