General Psychology - Chapter 1/Introduction Flashcards
Research
Critical Thinking, Scientific Attitude, Evaluating Evidence
Scope of Psychology
Academic and Professional Psychologists
Contemporary Perspectives
Neuropsychology, Evolutionary, Behavioral, Cognitive, Sociocultural, Psychodynamic
Define Psychology
Scientific study of human behavior and the underlying biological and mental processes of behavior as well as the applications of such research and theory to the world around us.
Psychology Definition
1) Study of human behavior 2) Study of underlying biological & mental processes of behavior 3) applications of research & theory
Science Goal of Psychology
Use the scientific method to observe behavior, hypothesize on its causes and correlates, test the hypotheses, formulate and publish the results so that others may scrutinize the work and use it in the real world.
Psychologists work in three main fields
Experimental, Teaching and Applied
Where do Experimental psychologists conduct research?
Schools, Colleges and Universities
Where do Applied Psychologists usually work?
They put research to use in the real world by treating people with mental disorders, or applying learning and motivation principles to organizational problems in business and industry and others conduct tests and develop special programs for children in schools who have emotional problems or exceptional abilities
When did the 6 Major Theoretical Perspectives emerge?
20th Century
What are the 6 Major Theoretical Perspectives also called?
Schools of thought on human behavior
What are the 6 Major Theoretical Perspectives of Psychology?
The 6 schools of thought are: 1)Neuropsychology (biological) 2) Evolutionary 3) Behavioral 4) Cognitive 5) Sociocultural 6) Psychodynamic
Name the 3 types of research methods used to study human behavior.
1) Descriptive 2) Correlational 3) Experimental
What does Descriptive Research allow us to observe?
Behavior in a systematic manner
What do Correlation Research studies determine?
The strength of the relationship between two or more variables
Experimental Research allows us to do what?
Control the situation that is being studied
What is the benefit of controlling the situation being studied in Experimental Research?
It allows the researcher to imply a cause and effect relationship
What does APA stand for?
American Psychological Association
What is the code of ethics for the APA?
It requires researchers to give sufficient information about the experiment to participants in order to respect the rights of its voluntary participants through informed consent.
Define Psychology
The scientific study of human behavior, the underlying biological and mental processes, and applications of such research and theory to the world around us.
Identify the Interests of Psychologists concerning behavior
1) How do brain processes influence consciousness and behavior? 2) What are the causes of aggression and prejudice? 3) Why do we sleep and what is the function of dreaming? 4) Are there effective methods for treating addictions? 5) What are causes of mental disorders, and how can behavior disorders be treated and/or prevented?
Describe the main forms of psychological research
Basic and applied
Recognize the basic goals of psychological research
1) Describe behavior 2) Understand its causes 3) Predict how people will behave 4) Influence behavior
Identify the characteristics of basic research and applied research
Basic research is the quest for knowledge; Applied research is a study designed to solve specific questions or problems
Recognize the philosophical and scientific roots of psychology
The roots of psychology are actually based in both philosophy and science.
Identify the characteristics of structuralism
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Identify the characteristics of functionalism
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Identify the characteristics of behaviorism
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Identify the characteristics of psychoanalysis
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Identify the characteristics of Gestalt psychology
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Identify the characteristics of humanistic psychology
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Identify the characteristics of Cognitive Revolution
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Identify the 6 major contemporary theoretical perspectives of human behavior
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Recognize the scope of psychology in terms of specialization
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Recognize the scope of psychology in terms of academic psychology
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Recognize the scope of psychology in terms of Professional Psychology
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Describe the differences between psychiatrists and psychologists
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Psychiatrists
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Psychologists
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How is critical thinking applied to psychology?
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List the stages of the scientific method?
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Identify the characteristics of the steps in conducting a research study.
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Differentiate between independent variable and dependent variable.
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Define Independent Variable
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Define Dependent Variable
..
Identify the characteristics of various research methods.
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Identify the use of meta-analysis.
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Define meta-analysis
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Explain how to reduce bias in experimental research
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Recognize the ethical guidelines for research
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Explain why psychologists need a code of ethics
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Define Behavior
In general and in a broad way it is anything that an organism does, internally or externally
Define Overt Behavior
Behaviors that can be observed or seen
Define Covert Behavior
Behaviors that cannot be directly observed because they are in thoughts, feelings, images, perceptions and biological processes and hidden from view
Are Covert Behaviors easy to measure?
No because they are hidden from view
What 3 areas does psychology encompass in the human body?
1) Mind 2) Behavior 3) Body
True or False. Our study of behavior and mental processes is a science that uses research to investigate our questions about behavior?
False. It uses the scientific method to investigate
In Psychological Research what is a description based on? Can it be used by itself?
It cannot be used by itself because it is a detailed record only of behavioral observations. It fails to answer the “why” to questions
In Psychological Research when has the goal of Understanding been accomplished? Give an example.
When the event has been explained. An example: bystanders standing by and not helping in an emergency. (Bystander apathy)
What is Bystander Apathy?
People failing to help other people when other potential helpers are nearby.
Define Prediction as one of the goals of psychological research.
The ability to forecast behavior accurately.
Define Influence as one of the goals of psychological research.
Also called (Control) it is the opportunity to alter conditions that affect behavior.
William Wundt
Leipzig, Germany, 1879, set up a laboratory to study conscious experience
Elements of Psychophysics
1860, Author was Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887)
What did Gustav Fechner show in his publication Elements of Psychophysics?
How physical events were related to psychological sensations and perceptions. He also described the scientific measurement of these events.
WHO was one of the first people to describe the scientific measurement of how the physical events were related to psychological sensations and perceptions?
Gustav Theodor Fechner (1801-1887) publisher of Elements of Psychophysics
WHO is considered the root Philosopher of psychology?
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
What was the book that Aristotle wrote about psychology?
Peri Psyches but he also wrote other works on behavior such as On Dreams, On Sleep and Sleeplessness, On Memory and Reminiscence, On the Senses and the Sensed
Define Nativism. Who is associated with this thought?
This is the position that humans have an inborn knowledge. Plato is credited with this thought.
Define Rationalism.
The belief that Plato had that we can gain access to the inborn knowledge of Nativism through reasoning.
WHO was of the thought that behavior was influenced by external stimulation?
Democritus (400 BC), the Greek Philosopher believed this
TRUE or FALSE. Present day philosophers debate Democritus thought that the interaction of biological and mental processes are associated with behavior
TRUE
Who is known as a great Western Theologian Philosopher?
Saint Augustine (354-430) who lived in what is known today as Algeria
What Theologian Philosopher wrote the autobiographical book called Confessions?
Saint Augustine
Who was the most important Islamic intellectual?
The Persian scientis Abu Ibn Sina (980-1037) AKA Avicenna
Who was responsible for keeping the teachings of Aristotle alive around (1000 AD)?
Abu Ibn Sina AKA Avicenna
Who was the most important authority and philosopher during the Christian and Medieval Era?
Saint Augustine
Who was the most important authority and philosopher during the Middle Ages?
Abu Ibn Sina AKA Avicenna
Who were some authorities and philosophers during the Renaissance Period?
Rene Descartes, Francis Bacon, John Locke, Immanuel Kant
What did Rene Descartes believe and what era was he alive during?
He was alive and the authority during the Renaissance Period. He believed that we should doubt anything that is not proved by our own reasoning.
WHO is known for the quote: “I think, therefore I am.”
Rene Descartes, Renaissance Period
WHO is the founder of Applied Science?
Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
Define Applied Science.
Science that seeks practical applications of research findings
Who was known as the English philosopher during the Renaissance Era?
John Locke (1632-1704)
Define Tabula Rasa
Blank slate on which is written life’s experiences according to the philosophy of John Locke.
Describe the different philosophies of John Locke vs. Rene Descartes. (Renaissance Philosophers)
Locke believed that much of our knowledge is acquired through life experiences while Descartes believed that much of our knowledge is inborn.
Nature vs. Nature controversy is the difference of what 2 sources of knowledge?
The relative importance of Heredity and Life Experience (based on differences of Locke vs. Descartes philosophies)
WHO was the Renaissance philosopher known for believing that knowledge is the product of inborn mental faculties that organize and interpret sensory information from the environment?
Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
The thought that the ability to use language is dependent on inborn brain mechanisms, but the language you speak is dependent on your experiences is credited to WHO?
Immanuel Kant
Name those credited as the Philosophical Roots of Psychology.
1) Aristotle 2) Plato 3) Democritus 4) Saint Augustine 5) Abu Ibn Sina AKA Avicenna 6) Rene Descartes 7) Francis Bacon 8) John Locke 9)Immanuel Kant
Name those credited as the Scientific Roots of Psychology.
1) Gustav Theodor Fechner 2) Charles Darwin 3) Francis Galton 4) James McKeen Cattell
When did Psychology emerge as a scientific discipline?
The later decades of the 19th Century (Benjamin, 2007)
Who is the Father of PSYCHOPHYSICS?
German born Gustav Theodor Fechner. He published his book in 1860
Define Psychophysics.
Ways in which the intensity and other physical characteristics of stimuli give rise/acceleration to our psychological experience of them.
Name one of the first fields of Psychological Research.
Psychophysics. The study of the relationship between the physical stimulation and psychological experiences.
Describe study questions of psychophysics.
1) How loud does a sound have to be to hear it? 2) How much does a sound need to change for you to detect that change?
Who is the Father of the theory of evolution?
Charles Darwin (Late 19th century) 1809-1882
What is the proposal of the theory of evolution in The Origin of the Species (Darwin, 1859)?
Natural selection is the process where physical characteristics that promote survival are likely to be passed on to offspring.
Who was cousin to Charles Darwin and had the philosophy that natural selection could account for the development of human abilities?
Francis Galton (1822-1911)
Francis Galton believed that individuals with the most highly developed abilities would be most likely to survive. TRUE or FALSE
TRUE
Which Scientist is credited with founding the field of Differential Psychology?
Francis Galton (Charles Darwin’s cousin, 1822-1911)
Define Differential Psychology.
The study of variations among people with regard to personality, physical and intellectual attributes.
Who introduced Differential Psychology to the US?
James McKeen Cattell (1860-1944)
Who is the founder of Psychological Corporation? What is the basis of what the Company does?
James McKeen Cattell. It develops tests that measure mental abilities, intelligence and personality.
WHO is credited with founding psychology as an independent science?
Wilhelm Wundt. He basically transitioned psychology from philosophy to be seen as a science.
Why is Wilhelm Wundt considered the founder of psychology as an independent science?
He established the first scientific laboratory and dedicated it to the study of psychology.
The approach known as STRUCURALISM was founded by whom? and what is the thought of this approach?
Edward Tichner, the student to Wilhelm Wundt who believed the mind could be broken down into its basic components or structures.
The Psychological Laboratory at Cornell University was established by whom?
Edward Tichner, the student who was one of Wundt’s first generation of experimental psychologists.
Define Introspection
Looking within (the studying of sensations/sensory stimuli and describing the inner experience; Scientific investigation of Cognition
What group of psychologists believe that sensations were the basic elements of consciousness?
STRUCTURALISTS
WHO were the 2 chief founders of FUNCTIONALISM?
William James and John Dewey
The perspective, FUNCTIONALISM came about due to a dissatisfaction of STRUCTURALISM and why?
There was more desire to study other aspects of the mind and behavior instead of just using the method of introspection.
What group of psychologists are more interested in how the mind functions?
FUNCTIONALISTS (they are not as concerned with how the mind is structured like Structuralists) They want to know why we do what we do!
Who wrote Principles of Psychology, in 1890?
William James. He established psychology as a serious discipline! (It is the oldest psychology book that is more than a century old and still in print today)
William James was interested in the stream of _______?
Consciousness; The continuous current of thoughts that seems to flow endlessly through our awareness or consciousness
Who was the first President of the American Psychological Association?
Mary Whiton Calkins (1863-1930)
What female completed all of her coursework and doctoral dissertation required for a doctoral degree under William James but was refused the award of PhD by Harvard?
Mary Whiton Calkins; William James, her professor opened the door for the entry of women into the psychology discipline
The study of OVERT Behavior that could be recorded and measured was the motto of this psychology group in the early 1900’s.
BEHAVORISTS
WHO was the founder of Behavorism in the early 1900’s?
John Broadus Watson (1878-1958)
Explain the thought behind BEHAVORISM.
Action could be recorded and measured but mental processes and introspection should not be used as methods of investigation since they can not accurately be measured or recorded. Too many variables and mentalistic concepts like mind, consciousness, thinking and feeling shouldn’t be included to determine psychology.
Who is remembered for this famous statement: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might suggest-doctor, lawyer, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and the race of his ancestors.”
(Watson, 1924, p.82)
This BEHAVIORIST was instrumental in the thought that manipulation of the environment that controls behavior through its patterns of rewards and punishments are what would change human kind.
B.F.Skinner (REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS changes the environment)
“A person does not act upon the world, the world acts upon him” was said by
B.F. Skinner. Environment changed through Rewards and punishments
According to BF Skinner the joint function of these two things form a persons behavior.
1) Previous life experiences 2) Immediate environment
Define the view known as PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE
The thought that we may do or say things without understanding the why behind the behaviors and that they are behaviors rooted from early childhood experiences (FREUD)
The region of the mind that lay beyond reach of the consciousness is called the __________.
Unconscious region
FREUD developed a form of psychotherapy called ______.
Psychoanalysis
Primitive sexual and aggressive drives or instincts are considered to what is in the repository or storage area of this region of the mind _________, according to FREUD.
Unconscious
Define “gestalt”
German word for whole or form
Name the type of psychology that argues that perceptions and mental processes are organized so that the WHOLE is greater than and also different from the SUM of its parts.
Gestalt psychology was introduced into the US from Germany in the 1920’s.
According to Wolfgage Kohler what is the definition of insight?
The sudden perception of relationships. (His thought was that insight learning stimulated new interest in human cognitive processes.
Who was the psychologist that used apes as research for psychology, during WWI, around the 1920’s?
Wolfgage Kohler was considered to be a Gestalt psychologist and did this.
This psychology focuses on the uniqueness of each human being and the potential for personal growth as the processes that influence behavior. Name it.
Humanistic (Personal growth within a human being)
Name two key psychologist for the development of humanistic psychology.
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow where key leaders.
Humanistic psychology, in its beginning, was a reaction to the two forces that dominated psychology during the 1950’s-positive and Freudian psychology. T or F
False. Behaviorism and Freudian psychology were the 2 most influential psychologies during the 1950’s
What 2 essential aspects of human experience is found in the Humanistic Psychology?
Free will and conscious choice, which help make up “the 3rd force” as it was called during the 1950’s.
Today the humanistic view has influenced a new rise in what type of psychology and what does this psychology emphasize?
Humanistic view gave way to Positive Psychology where research of human strengths vs. human weakness is emphasized.
Name the Rebellion, led by a group of psychologists that took place in the 1960’s.
An early interest in mental processes, sparked a Cognitive Revolution.
The knowledge of brain activities that correlate with thought developed into the introduction of _______ _______.
Cognitive Neuroscience
Neuropsychology is made up what two relationships?
Biological or physiological
Which type of psychology focuses on evolution, genetics, NEURONS, hormones and the brain as it process that influences behaviors.
Neuropsychology
Name 3 key contributors to the Biological perspective of Neuropsychology.
Wilder Penfield, James Olds and Roger Sperry
Name 2 key ideas of the Biological Perspective of Neuropsychology.
1) Human & Animal behavior are the result of internal physical, chemical and biological processes 2) Behavior is explained through activity of the brain and nervous system, physiology, genetics, the endocrine system, biochemistry and evolution 3) Like behaviorism, the biological perspective has a rather neutral, reductionistic, mechanistic view of human nature 4) Behavior is mainly determined by our biology
Evolutionary Perspective
(A variation of the biological perspective) believes that behavior patterns have evolved to solve adaptive problems.
What is the perspective that favors behaviors that enhance reproductive success and believes that natural selection is associated with this?
Evolutionary Perspective
Evoluntionary psychology does not account for cultural diversity and experience. T or F
True. It has been criticized for not accounting for this.
What focuses on behavioral, social and cognitive learning principles as the process that influence behavior?
Behavioral Learning
Social-cognitive theory
A broader perspective that is an off shoot of traditional behaviorism. The thought is that behavior is shaped not only by environmental factors but also by cognitive factors.
Behavior therapy was grounded in research by these three and help people acquire more adaptive behaviors to overcome problems.
Watson, Pavlov and Skinner
Cognitive
focuses on thinking, reasoning, and memory as the processes that influence behavior.
Cognitive Perspective
Stresses the active role of the mind in organizing perspective, processing information, and interpreting experience. It stresses the need for objective, well controlled laboratory studies.
Which perspective is associated with stressing that mental processes are inferred from observable responses?
Cognitive Perspective
Name the 3 who are major contributors toward cognitive perspective.
Jean Piaget, Noam Chomsky, Herbert Simon
Sociocultural Theory
Focuses on social and cultural influences as the processes that influence behavior.
This perspective takes into consideration the importance of cultural context when examining how behavior and attitudes are shaped by social forces.
Sociocultural Theory
Which perspective focuses on ethnicity, gender, lifestyle, income level, and culture and their influence on behavior and mental processes.
Sociocultural Theory
Psychodynamic Theory
The perspective that focuses on early childhood experiences and the unconscious as the process that influence behavior.
What group places more emphasis on processes such as self-awareness, self direction and conscious choice vs. basic drives like sex and aggression.
Neo-Freudians that are thinkers of the theory Psychodynamic
This theory influences art, literature and culture and have views that are endorsed that people are not always aware of their motives and wishes.
Psychodynamic theory
Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and Alfred Adler are contributors to this modern theory
Psychodynamic theory
Psychology is considered to be a science and practitioners in specializing fields are generally grouped into 2 groups. Name them.
Academic and Professional Psychologists
What is the largest specialization area for academic psychologists and where are they usually employed?
Experimental Psychology and psychologists are usually employed at universities and colleges
What is the main research that is conduced by Experimental psychologists?
Basic psychological processes. Almost all psychologists conduct this type of research.
Name the 8 basic psychological processes.
MEPMPLTS (Mom eats Pink Mints PoliteLy Tuesdays and Saturdays) 1) Memory 2) Emotion 3) Perception 4) Motivation 5) Personality 6) Learning 7) Thinking 8) Sensation
Behavioral Neuroscience
Psychologists study the biological bases of behavior and mental processes
What similarities and differences are studied in Comparative Psychology?
Physiology, behavior and abilities of all animals along with the study of motives related to eating, drinking, aggression, courtship and parenting.
What type of psychologist is concerned about the study of factors responsible for the physical, cognitive and social changes throughout a lifespan?
Developmental Psychologists
The focus of research on the role of nature, human biology, nurture, and the environment in behavior is associated with what group of psychologists?
Developmental Psychologists
Which academic psychologist group is associated with devising tests that focus on factors that account for similarities and differences in behavior and the characteristics of individuals?
Personality Psychologists
The concern that the effects of people that they have on each other and the power of the social situation is associated with these psychologists.
Social psychologists.
Interpersonal relationships, social perceptions, social cognition and attitudes are objectives that are focused on by these group of psychologists.
Social psychologists
Cross-Cultural psychologists
Study the role of culture in behavior, including thought, emotion and development.
Name the 2 largest fields of professional psychology.
Clinical and Counseling psychology
Clinical Psychologists
Deal with causes, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of psychological disorders
Counseling Psychologists
Deal with problems of everyday living in every way from career planning, academic performance, personal relations.
Clinical psychology and Psychiatry are the same thing. T or F
False
What method do Clinical psychologist use to treat people?
Psychotherapy
A clinical psychologist can usually prescribe medications. T or F
False
Describe a Psychiatrist
A medical doctor who has completed a residency in psychiatry that may prescribe drugs or other biomedical treatments and takes a medical approach to interpret the causes of abnormal behaviors.
These type of psychologists apply psychological principles to the maintenance of health and coping with illness.
Health psychologists
Community Psychologists
They focus on improving the quality of life among individuals in their community and society at large
Those psychologists that find ways to increase worker satisfaction and productivity. The focus is on leadership skills, effective training strategies or victimization at the workplace.
Industrial/organizational psychologists
What is one of the oldest fields of psychology that was founded by a functionalist, G. Stanley Hall.
School psychology
This type of psychologist does research on teaching and learning and is concerned with improving the educational process.
Educational psychologist
Forensic psychologists
This Psychology is applied to the legal system. They help police to handle domestic disputes, negotiate with hostage takers and relieve job related stress.
Environmental Psychologists
The study of the effect of the physical environment on human behavior
The perspectives of Academic and Professional psychologists have not answered all the questions about human behavior. T or F
True
Critical Thinking
Thinking to identify problems that may arise when interpreting results for scientific analysis.
Peer Reviews
Usually they have more rigorous credentials than most sources in the media. Materials that have been reviewed and critiqued by other professionals within the same field of study.
What do you need to be aware of when critiquing information.
The kind of biases that can limit analysis
Name the types of biases that can limit analysis when critiquing information.
Confirmation and hindsight biases
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to seek out information that supports one’s ideas and to forget about or ignore information that does not support one’s ideas
Hindsight bias
Tendency to report, after the fact, that one could have predicted the results all along
Hindsight bias may limit our analysis and contribute to overconfidence and over generalization. T or F
True
Curiosity, skepticism and humility comprise ______ _______.
Scientific Attitude
Empirical method
Gaining knowledge through direct evidence through observation, data collection, or logical reasoning.
Curiosity is a natural inquisitive behavior that drives ______ and _____ ______.
Exploration and Critical Thinking
When interpreting information ____ is necessary and involves having a questioning attitude and is the heart of the empirical method.
Skepticism
What is considered to be the backbones of scientific method?
Critical thinking and scientific attitude
T or F. The use of the scientific method is what makes psychology a science?
True
Name the 7 Steps in Gathering & Evaluating Evidence
1) Generate ideas 2) Formulate a Research Question 3) Develop a Hypothesis 4) Devise a Study to Test the Hypothesis 5) Run the study and get the results 6) Analyze and Interpret the Results 7) Communicate the Results
Formulating a Research Question
Take an idea and examine the literature on the topic to ascertain what researchers have done and how they have conceptualized and tested the topic. Convert your ides into a clearly posed research question or set of research questions
Define Hypothesis
A testable prediction/belief of what will happen in some circumstance
Developing a Hypothesis
Take the research question from your idea and restate it in specific terms that make a prediction
Hypothesis Example
The research question is to see if sugar affects memory: College students who ingest two grams of sugar before studying for memorization task
T or F. If an exploratory study is being conducted then the hypothesis can be generalized.
True
Name the 3 things used to Devise a study to test a hypothesis.
1) Define terms and variables in the study 2) decide on the best research method to test the hypothesis 3) select what statistical methods you will use for analyzing data
Operational definition
Definition that specifies the operations or procedures used to measure some variable
Variable
Characteristic that can have more than one value
Give some examples of VARIABLES
Intelligence, sex, status in a family, type of behavior, etc..
Name the 2 main types of variables in a typical research study.
Independent and Dependent
Independent Variable
The variable that influences the dependent variable, which is expected to be changed
Give an example of an Independent Variable
The variable that defines different groups of participants or describes the qualities of those who are measured via the dependent variable.
To determine the independent variable you have to determine what it is that is hypothesizing/predicting to influence the subject. T or F
True
The _____ variable is influenced or changes in response to its counter variable and is often, but not always a number/score.
Dependent
More than one independent and dependent variables are NOT allowed in a research study
False
For collecting data what would be used for studying attitudes?
Questionnaires
For collecting data what would be used for studying personalities?
Psychological tests
For collecting data what would be used for studying physiological bases of behavior?
Brain imaging techniques
When Interpreting Results these questions are vital:
1) How much confidence can we place in the findings? 2) Are the correlations between variables or observed differences between experimental conditions real ones we can accept with confidence as accurate?
Inferential statistics
Form of mathematics that allows us to evaluate the likelihood that given patterns of research, results are indeed real.
What is the statistical number that the likelihood that results are SIGNIFICANT when observed finding by chance is low?
Fewer than 5:100
Journal
A periodical that publishes technical and scholarly material, usually in a narrowly defined area of study.
METHODS of RESEARCH (DiCE)
1) Descriptive 2) Correlation Design 3) Experimental
Name the 4 types of Descriptive Research (PaNCakeS)
1) Case Studies 2) Naturalistic Observation 3) Survey Method 4) Psychological Tests
Is there Experimenter control or cause and effect relationships given in Descriptive research?
No it just allows us to observe behavior in a systematic manner. It is helpful in creating a hypotheses.
What type of method is used in the Descriptive Research that cannot be duplicated in a laboratory because they are unique experiences?
Case Studies
Which method can reveal more about a particular subject than any other research method?
Case Studies but the require a lot of time, effort and attention to detail.
Clandestinely
done in a private place or way : done secretly
Naturalistic observation
Observation done inconspicuously without changing the environment or behavior of participants without interference.
Which of the 4 methods in Descriptive Research has NO control over the environment?
Naturalistic Observation because an anticipated behavior may never occur and a researcher may not be able to be completely unobtrusive.
What is an easy way for asking people about their experiences and activities?
Doing a survey
What 3 things can affect the outcome of the results of a SURVEY?
Participant bias, if the participants are being open and honest about their answers and semantic errors (relating to the meanings of words and phrases)
What do psychological tests allow us to measure?
Innumerable number of human activities, personality traits, intelligence and aptitudes
In order for tests to work effectively what 2 things are necessary?
1) Reliability 2) Validity
The statistical measure of a test’s consistency or ability to result in similar scores if given repeatedly is _______
Reliability
The statistical measure of a test’s ability to measure what it is supposed to measure is ____.
Validity
Correlation Research
The study of the strength of the relationship between 2 or more variables.
Negative Correlations (-1)
The high values of one variable are associated with the low values of the other variable (ie. the amount of ice cream eaten and the amount of weight lost)
Positive Correlations (+1)
Relationships in which the high values of one variable are associated with the high values of another variable. (ie. the amount of ice cream and the mean average temperature) The closer we get to Zero the weaker the relationships becomes.
T or F. The positive correlation between intelligence and grade point average so that a more intelligent a person is the higher the grade point average of that person is.
True
Cause and Effect can be determined with Correlation Research. T or F
False
Name a limitation to the study of Correlational Research
We can’t know the direction of influence (ie. whether eating junk food leads to poor health or poor health leads to eating junk food)
There can be intervening variables that can not be known when measuring which is why a correlation between two variables does not guarantee that they are the only two. T or F
True
What determines the strength of a correlation statistic?
Not its sign (- or +) but the absolute size of it (ie.
r = +.60 shows stronger correlation than r = -.40 and r = -.60 shows a stronger correlation than r = +.50
2 Examples of Correctional measures used in psychological testing.
SAT Scores, IQ
2 Examples of Positive Correlations include
1) Hours spent studying vs. academic success 2) smoking rates vs. number of health related problems
2 Examples of Negative Correlations include
1) Exercise vs. blood pressure 2 ) Number of classes missed vs. exam grades
Experimental Research
Research in which the experimenters can control the situation being studied and various variables
What is the benefit of control in Experimental Research?
Cause and effect of a relationship can be implied since at least one variable can be manipulated.
Name some features of Experimental Research
1) Hypothesis 2 ) Independent and Dependent Variables 3) Experimental and Control Groups 4) Placebo effect 5) Random assignments 6) Statistically significant and insignificant differences
Replication
Repeating a study using different participants in an attempt to duplicate the previous findings.
T or F. The use of replication can yield consistent findings for the results of research.
False. Rarely are results yielding consistent findings because different researchers use different method and measures of behavior
Researchers now use ___ ____ technique to deal with contradictory results from replication studies.
Meta-Analysis
Meta-Analysis
The use of statistical techniques to sum up a body of simple studies in order to objectively estimate the reliability and overall size of the effect.
Name the 2 types of validity in experimental research.
External and internal validity
The ability to generalize the conclusion drawn from the experiment to real world issues describes what type of validity?
External
Give an example of External Validity
Effects of mindfulness meditation (Ind. Variable) on stress (Dep. Variable. Two groups and one group instructed on mindfulness meditation (Experimental) and other given no instructions (Control). Skin conductance and hear rate levels are measured and compared between groups. External validity: How similar is practicing mindfulness meditation in laboratory vs. real world?
The degree of certainty that the changes in the dependent variable are due to the manipulation of the independent variable describes what type of validity?
Internal validity
Experimenter bias
Occurs when the experimenter’s expectations influence the outcome of an experiment which can alter results.
Demand Characteristics in Internal validity happens when..
expectations of the outcomes to the participants are revealed
Research Participant Bias
Occurs when a participants behavior is influenced by how they think they are supposed to behave.
What is used to reduce research participant bias?
Placebo (Harmless treatment that should have no effect on the participant)
What is used to reduce both experimenter and research participant bias?
Double Blind Procedure
Double Blind Procedure
Until data is analyzed both the researcher administering the treatment nor the participants know which group is receiving the experimental treatment. (this eliminates expectations)
Will the Internal Validity be high or low if both experimenter and research participant biases are controlled?
High
Concerns over the welfare of persons involved in experimental studies caused the government to develop regulations requiring all institutions seeking federal funding to establish ____ ____ ____ for research involving human participants.
(IRB’s) Institutional Review Boards
Ethical guidelines for professional organizations include 4 things:
1)Protect participants from harm (physical and psychological) 2 ) Obtain voluntary, written and informed consent 3) If deception is used it must be justified and cause no harm 4) Privacy must be maintained.
Test Data
Raw and scaled scores, client/patient responses to test questions or stimuli, psychologists’ notes and recordings concerning client/patient statements and behavior during examinations
Test Materials
Manuals, instruments, protocols and test questions or stimuli
There are separate guidelines for working with children for research. What group developed Ethical Standards for Research with Children?
Society for Research in Child Development
