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Chiro Essentials Chemistry > General Principles and Carbs > Flashcards

General Principles and Carbs Flashcards

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1
Q

Oxidation vs Reduction

A

Ox: loss of hydrogen, gain oxygen
Red: gain of hydrogen, loss of oxygen

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2
Q

Carboxylation

A

carboxyl group added/displaces H+ (COOH)

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3
Q

Hydrolysis

A

Cleavage of compound by addition of water

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4
Q

Phosphorylation via what enzyme? What removes a phosphate group? What transfers it

A

Phosphorylase
Phosphatase
Kinase

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5
Q

Function of a ligase?

A

Catalyzes the joining of two molecules

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6
Q

Vmax?

A

max velocity of reaction, proportional to enzyme concentration

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7
Q

Michaelis-Menten constant/Kmax?

A

substrate concentration to reach 1/2 of Vmax

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8
Q

Competitive inhibition v non-competitive vs allosteric regulation

A

Competitive: inhibitor binds to same active site as normal enzyme substrate, reversible
Non: inhibitor binds to non-active site, irreversible
Allosteric: binding of effector molecule at allosteric site can inhibit or activate

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9
Q

How many calories do you get per gram of CHO? protein? Fat? alcohol

A

4, 4, 9, 7

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10
Q

Energy fuels results in heat generation and ATP synthesis

A

Catabolism

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11
Q

Peptide bonds are formed by?

A

Dehydration

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12
Q

Ester bonds are covalent bonds between?

A

Glycerol and fatty acids

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13
Q

Glycosidic bonds occur between?

A

2 sugar molecules

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14
Q

Phosphodiester bonds occur between?

A

2 nucleotides (covalent)

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15
Q

Metabolic pathways that occur in the:
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm
Both

A

Mito: fatty acid ox, TCA cycle, ox phosphorylation
Cyto: glycolysis, fatty acid synth, HMP shunt, protein synth
Both: heme synthesis, urea cycle, gluconeogenesis

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16
Q 
Rate limiting steps:
Glycolysis?
Gluconeogenesis?
TCA cycle?
Glycogen synth?
Gycogenolysis?
A 
Glycolysis: PFK
Gluconeogenesis: F-1,6BP
TCA cycle: isocitrate dehydrogenase
Glycogen synth: glycogen synthase
Gycogenolysis: glycogen phosphorylase
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17
Q 
Rate limiting steps:
HMP Shunt?
Urea cycle?
Fatty acid synth?
Fatty acid ox?
Cholesterol synth?
A 
HMP Shunt: G6P dehydrogenase
Urea cycle: Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase
Fatty acid synth: Acety-CoA carboxylase
Fatty acid ox: Carnitine acyltransferase
Cholesterol synth: HMG-CoA reductase
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18
Q

long, unbranched chain of glucose a(1-4) in plants

A

Amylose

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19
Q

Highly branched glucose polymer a(1-4) with (1-6) bonds every 24-30 units?

A

Amylopectin

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20
Q

Sucrose is made of?

Lactose?

A

Sucrose: glucose and fructose
Lactose: galactose and glucose

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21
Q

Linear chain of D-glucose b(1-4) of plants?

A

Celluloe

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22
Q

Salivary amylase breaks down?

A

maltose (2 glucose)

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23
Q

Pancreatic amylase breaks down?

A

1-4 links to release di/tri saccharides

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24
Q

Lactase is secreted where?

A

Intestinal villi

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25
Q 
Where do you find:
GLUT1
GLUT2
GLUT3
GLUT4
A

1: RBC, prain, placenta, testis
2: liver, kidney, beta cells (pancreas) - couple w/Na+
3: neurons
4: adipose, skeletal, cardiac muscle - sensitive to insulin

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26
Q

Glycolysis prep phase steps:

A

1: G-G6P w/glucokinase (liver) and hexokinase, uses 1 ATP, irreversible
2: G6P-F6P via phosphoglucose isomerase
3: F6P-F16BP: PFK, RLS, 1 ATP, allosterically regulated
4: F16BP-G3P/DHAP: aldolase
5: DHAP-G3P via triose phosphate isomerase

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27
Q

Glycolysis pay off phase steps:

A

6: G3P-13BPG: G3P dehydrogenase, NADH H+ made
7: 13BPG-3PG: 2 ATP made/G, phosphoglycerate kinase break even step
8: 3PG to 2PG: phosphoglycerate mutase
9: 2PH to PEP - enolase (removes water)
10: PEP-pyruvate: pyruvate kinase, 2 ATP in this step, net 2 ATP

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28
Q

Tell me about hexokinase

A

G-G6P, in most tissue, used MgATP2-, inhibited by G6P, prevents accumulation in cell (dec swelling)

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29
Q

Tell me about glucokinase

A

in liver, activated by insulin, inhibited by F6P, works at high blood glucose levels

30
Q

Tell me about PFK

A

RLS in glycolysis, inhibited by ATP citrate (Krebs), NADH, glucagon and activated by AMP/ADP, insulin, F26BP

31
Q

What’s cool about Pyruvate Kinase?

A

Activated by F16BP and AP

Inhibited by ATP, fatty acids, alanine, acetyl CoA

32
Q

What can happen to pyruvate made by glycolysis?

A

Oxidation: to acetyl CoA to Krebs (pyruvate dehydrogenase - ATP, Acetyl CoA, NADH)
Reduction: to regenerate NAD+ (lactate dehydrogenase)
Carboxylation: pyruvate to oxaloacetate (Pyruvate carboxylase)
Transamination: pyruvate to alanine (Alanine transaminase)

33
Q

Aldose reductase can convert glucose to?

A

Sorbitol

34
Q

What does sorbitol dehydrogenase do?

A

Turn sorbitol to fructose so that it can go to glycolysis

35
Q

What cells is sorbitol dehydrogenase not found in?

A

Lens, retina, Schwann cells

36
Q

Where does gluconeognesis take place?

A

Liver, kidneys in starvation (use ketone)

37
Q

Gluconeogenesis Step 10 reversal?

A

1: pyruvate-oxaloacetate (mitochondria pyruvate carboxylase, biotin key (B7) to cytoplasm
2: oxaloacetate to PEP via PEP carboxykinase (hydroyze GTP, facilitated by glucagon, cortisol)

38
Q

Gluconeogenesis Step 3 reversal?

A

PFK F6P-F16BP use F16BPase to get there - RLS, stim by ATP/citrate, - by AMP, F26BP

39
Q

Gluconeogenesis Step 1 reversal?

A

G6Pase converts G6P to G in ER of liver and kidney cells

40
Q

How much ATP is used in gluconeogenesis?

A

6 to make one glucose

41
Q

Each acetyl CoA from pryuvate produces what?

A

3 NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 GTP, 2 CO2

42
Q

Kreb cycle GO!

A

1: citrate from oxaloacetate (4C) + Acetyl CoA (Citrate synthase, ATP inhibits)
2: Isocitrate from citrate (Aconitase)
3: aKG from IC via IC dehydrogenase (RLS) ADP activates, ATP/NADH inhibit, one NADH produced and CO2 released (5C)
4: succinyl CoA from Akg (aKG dehydrogenase req b1, 2, 3, 5) makes NADH and CO2 (4C)
5: Succinate via succinate thiokinase/succinyl CoA synthetase, 1 GTP made
6: Fumarate via succinate dehydrogenase (bound to mitochondrial membrane uses FAD) makes 1 FADH2
7: malate via fumarase
8: oxaloacetate via malate dehydrogenase, reversible, 1 NADH made

43
Q

NADH makes how much ATP? FADH2?

A

3, 2

44
Q

Total energy production from Kreb cycle?

A 
38 ATP
2 ATP net from glycolysyis
6 ATP from 2 NADH
6 ATP from pyruvate to acetyl coA (2 NADH)
24 ATP acetyl coa to oxaloacetate
45
Q

Four points protein can enter kreb cycle?

A

Succinyl CoA, oxaloacetate, fumarate, aKG

46
Q

What is the purpose of the malate-aspartate shuttle?

A

To have malate enter mitochondria w/e- and oxidized to oxaloacetate regenerating NADH in matrix (free e-) then converted to aspartate so it can be reconverted to oxaloacetate in cytosol

47
Q

What is the purpose of the G3P shuttle?

A

DHAP reduced to G3P by NADH G3P into mitochondria to react w/FAD where the e- enters the matix so DHAP is regenerated and re-enters the cytosol and FADH2 gives e- to complex 2

48
Q

Hemoglobin in cytochromes carries what?

A

electrons

49
Q

Iron-sulfur proteins participate in what reaction?

A

Redox

50
Q

What is unique about FAD/FMN?

A

3 oxidation states, can carry 2 e-, pick one up at a time

51
Q

Pyridine-linked dehydrogenases remove 2H from the substrate in what forms?

A

H+, NADP+ gets one

52
Q

Ubiquinone/Coenzyme Q is a -_____ which participate in what type of rxns?

A

Quinone (small organic molecule, not protein)

redox rxns and carry 1 or 2 H

53
Q

Complex 1 in the ETC?

A

NADH dehydrogenase complex (Coenzyme Q), 1st comp of ETC H+ pass from NADH to FMN then iron sulfur centers, FMN picks up another H+ from aqueous medium,main ELECTRON DONOR, CoQ takes freed e- to inner mtiochondrial membrane

54
Q

Complex II in the ETC?

A

Succinte dehydrogenase complex (w/CoQ) FADH2 formed in krebs enters ETC, transfers H to iron sulfur groups to CoQ as ELECTRON DONOR and another H+ from surrounding, lipid soluble diffuses w/in inner mitochondrial membrane

55
Q

Complex III in the ETC?

A

Cytochrome reductase or c complex (w/CoQ)
removes 2 e- from CoQH2 at Q0 site and sends them to cytochrome c in intermembrane space and the other 2 to Qi site where quinone reduce to quinol

56
Q

Complex IV in the ETC?

A

Cytochrome c oxidase (oxidative phase-O2 added)
e- to inner mitochondrial membrane from cytochrome c to CuA –> Cu+ transition, and copper passes e- to cytochrome a to CuB and a second e- thru IV picked up by CuA then cytochrome a then ends up as cytochrome a3
O2 molecule takes 2H to make water so OXYGEN IS THE ELECTRON ACCEPTOR

57
Q

Complex V in the ETC?

A 
ATP synthase (phosphorylation phase adds phosphate)
Final step H+ re-enters matrix through V to turn and this converts ADP and PO4- to ATP
58
Q

What inhibits cytochrome c in the ETC?

A

Cyanide, CO

59
Q

Purpose of the Cori cycle?

A

Prevent lactic acid buildup from anaerobic glycolysis

Maintain NAD+ to use in glycolysis

60
Q

How much ATP is used in the Cori cycle?

A

4 ATP

61
Q

Steps of the Cori cycle?

A

1) pyruvic acid + lactate dehydrogenase = lactic acid (removes protons from NADH back)
2) Lactic acid to liver converted back to pyruvic acid then glucose

62
Q

Purpose of the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

Produce NADPH for fatty acid synthesis, detoxification, protection from free radicals

63
Q

Rate limiting enzyme of the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

G6P dehydrogenase

64
Q

What energy molecules are produced in the pentose phosphate pathway?

A

2 NADPH

65
Q

Glycogenesis steps?

A

G + Glucokinase = G6P
G6P + phosphoglucomutase = G1P
G1P + UDP-Glucose pyrophosphorylase = UDP
UDP + glycogenin + glycogen synthase (RLS) = glycogenin a(1-4) glucose + glucosyl (4-6) transferase for branching

66
Q

Glycogenesis is activated by? Inhibited?

A

Insulin (high blood glucose)

Epinephrine, glucagon

67
Q

How is glycogen structured?

A

Backbone of glucose molecules a1-4 links, every 8-10 branches of a(1-6) links

68
Q

Rate limiting enzymes for glycogenolysis?

A

Glycogen phosphorylase A/B

69
Q

Steps of Glycogenolysis?

A

1: glycogen phosphorlyase cleaves a(1-4) linkages until 5 glucose chain left
2: amylo-a-1-6, glucosidase makes G1P
3: phosphoglucomutase converts G1P to G6P

70
Q

Hormonal regulation of glycogenolysis:

A

cAMP, stim by glucagon and epinephrine, inhibited by insulin

71
Q

What do you remember about cAMP?

A

2o messenger, synth from ATP by adenylyl cyclae, activates phosphorylase kinases, activates glycogen phosphorylase
Inhibits glycogen synthase
Regulates passage of Ca2+ thru ionic channels

Chiro Essentials Chemistry (2 decks)

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