General Chemistry Tests (Bootcamp) Flashcards
phase diagram
Gibbs Equation
∆G=∆H-T∆S
∆G is negative means
spontaneous
∆G is positive means
non spontaneous
∆G = 0 means
rxn is at equilibrium
first order rxn rate constant
S^-1
y-axis: [ln]concentration
second order rate constant
M^-1 S^-1
y axis: 1/concentration
third order rate constant
M^-2 S^-1
zero order graph
y axis: concentration
strong acids
HCl (hydrochloric acid)
HBr (hydrobromic acid)
HI (hydroiodic acid)
H2SO4 (sulfuric acid)
HNO3 (nitric acid)
HClO3 (chloric acid)
HClO4 (perchloric acid)
strong bases
group 1 metal hydroxides
Mg(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Sr(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
ideal gas law
PV=nRT
P1 x V1 / n1 x T1 = P2 x V2/ n2 x T2
osmotic pressure
π= iMRT
pi = osmotic pressure
i = van hoff factor
M= molarity
R= constant (0.082)
an uncharged element not bonded to other elements (H2, Na, Cl2) have an oxidation number of:
zero
a monoatomic ion ( K+, S^2-, Mg^2+. Al^2+) have an oxidation number of
charge of ion
a non metal has a charge of
usually negative
-2 O2 usually
-1 with peroxides (H2O2)
+1 hydrogen when bonded to a non metal
freezing point equation
∆Tf= -Kf mi
i = van hoff factor
the smallest van hoff factor =
highest freezing point
density of gas formula
P= PM/RT
colligative properties
freezing point
boiling point
vapor pressure
osmotic pressure
non colligative properties
surface tension
color
solubility
viscosity
half life for first order rxn
t1/2 = (0.693)/k
alpha decay
nuclear product: 4/2 alpha product
result: reduces mass + atomic #
likely for: large nuclei
B decay ( B emission )
Nuclear particle: 0/-1 B product
Result: Neutron –> proton
Likely for: N/Z ration too high (too many neutrons)
B+ decay (positron emmission)
Nuclear particle: 0/+1 B product
Result: Proton -> neutron
Likely for: N/Z ratio too low (too many protons)
electron capture
nuclei particle: 0/-1 B reactant
result: proton-> neutron
likely for? N/Z ration too low (too many protons)
gamma decay
nuclear particle: 0/0 y product
result: no change
likely for: unpredictable
if the forward + backward activation energy = each other then,
enthalpy must be ZERO
keq =
[products]/[reactants]
increased keq =
increased amount of products
decreased keq =
increased amount of reactants
oxidized
compound losing electrons (becoming more positive)
reduced
compound gaining electrons ( becoming more negative)
reducing agent
oxidized in a chemical rxn
oxidizing agent
reduced in a chemical rxn
combustion rxn
CxHy + O2 –> _CO2 + _H2O
atomic size decreases from
from left to right (along a period)
bc of the increase of effective nuclear charge
atomic size increases when
going down a column
bc of adding electron shells and electron shielding
solubles
Group 1 metal cations
nitrate ( NO3-)
Perchlorate (ClO4-)
Acetate (C2H3O2-)
Ammonium ( NH4+)
Insolubles
Silver (Ag+)
Lead (Pb2+)
Sulfide (S 2-)
Hydroxide (OH-)
Dimercury (Hg2 2+)
Carbonate (CO3 -2)
Phosphate ( PO4 3-)
freezing point equation
tf= -ikfm
t= temp change
i= vanhoff
kf= constant
m= molarity
boiling point
temperature at which vapor pressure of the liquid equals the surrounding pressure
normal boiling point
temperature at which vapor pressure of the liquid equals 1 atmosphere of pressure
PV= nRT
pressure and temp are directly related
molarity of a solution
M= mol of solute/ L of the solution
volatility
ability of a liquid to evaporate
weak intermolecular forces
half life
mass remaining = (original mass) (1/2) ^2
HCl HF conjugate bases
Cl- F-
Ionic
interaction:ionic
properties: increases MP, brittle, hard
examples: NaCl, MgO
Metallic
interaction: metallic bonding
properties: variable hardness and MP, conducting
examples: Fe, Mg
Molecular
interaction: hydrogen bonding, dipole-dipole, london dispersion
properties: decreases M.P and nonconducting
Examples: H2, CO2
Network
interaction: covalent bonding
properties: increased M.P, hard, nonconducting
examples: C(diamond), SiO2 (Quartz)
pH formulas
pH+pOH=14
pH= 14-pOH
10^-ph = [H+]
internal energy
∆E=q+w
∆E = change in internal energy
q= change in heat
w= amount of work done or to the system
+q
heat is transferred to the system (from surrounding)
-q (exothermic)
heat is transferred to the surroundings (from the system)
+w
the surrounding does work on the system (compression)
-w
the system does work on the surrounding (expansion)
kinetic theory of gases
- gases are composed of particles that do not have defined volume, yet have a defined mass. the size is minuscule in comparison to the distance between them (considered negligible)
- there are no intermolecular attractions or repulsions between the gas molecules
- gas particles are always in continuous, random motion
- collisions between gas particles are elastic, no loss or gain of kinetic energy when particles collide
- average kinetic energy is always the same for all gases at a specific temperature, regardless of the identity of the gas. The kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas,
saturated
contains the maximum amount of solute that a solvent can dissolve
rate of dissolution = crystallization
Alkali metals
react vigorously upon contact with water
Activated complex
unstable arrangement of atoms that exists momentarily at the peak of the activation energy barrier (transition state)
isotope
2 or more atoms that have the same atomic # but different atomic masses
same number of protons but different number of neutrons
homogenous mixtures
separated using distillations
different boiling points are used
evaporated compound cooled through the condenser and collected on other end of flask
How to balance rxns under acidic conditions:
1) Balance all the elements other than H and O
2) Balance O atoms by adding H2O as needed
3) Balance H atoms by adding H+ as needed
4) Balance charge by adding e- as needed
Ideal Gas Assumptions
1) The volume or size of each individual gas molecule is insignificant
- when the volume or space that a gas occupies is high, the volume of the individual gas particles becomes insignificant compared to the distance between them
- high volume gas = low pressure gas, as pressure and volume are inversely related
- at low pressures, the volume of individual gas particles is insignificant and the gas is likely to behave ideally
2) Gas molecules collisions with each other are perfectly elastic. No intermolecular forces.
- completely overcoming a gas intermolecular forces to create perfectly elastic collisions require very high kinetic energy
- high kinetic energy gas =high temperature gas, as kinetic energy and temperature are directly related
- at high temperature, collisions between gas molecules become elastic and the gas is likely to behave ideally
when do real gases behave ideally?
under low pressure and high temperature
kinetic energy = temperature
↑ ksp =
high solubility
↓ksp =
least solubility
work done when a gas is heated at constant pressure
w= -P∆V= -P(V2-V1)
partial pressure equation
P1 = x1(Pr)
electron domain: 2
non bonding electron pairs: 0
hybridization: sp
electron domain geometry: linear
molecular geometry: linear
bond angle: 180
electron domain: 3
non bonding electron pairs: 0
hybridization: sp2
electron domain geometry: trigonal planar
molecular geometry: trigonal planar
bond angle: 120
electron domain: 3
non bonding electron pairs: 1
hybridization: sp2
electron domain geometry: trigonal planar
molecular geometry: bent
bond angle: < 120
electron domain: 4
non bonding electron pairs: 0
hybridization: sp3
electron domain geometry: tetrahedral
molecular geometry: tetrahedral
bond angle: 109.5
electron domain: 4
non bonding electron pairs: 1
hybridization: sp3
electron domain geometry: tetrahedral
molecular geometry: trigonal pyramidal
bond angle: < 109.5
electron domain: 4
non bonding electron pairs: 2
hybridization: sp3
electron domain geometry: tetrahedral
molecular geometry: bent
bond angle: «109.5
electron domain: 5
non bonding electron pairs: 0
hybridization: sp3d
electron domain geometry: trigonal bipyramid
molecular geometry: trigonal bypryramid
bond angle: 90, 120, 180
electron domain: 5
non bonding electron pairs: 1
hybridization: sp3d
electron domain geometry: trigonal bipyramid
molecular geometry: see saw
bond angle: < 90, < 120
electron domain: 5
non bonding electron pairs: 2
hybridization: sp3d
electron domain geometry: trigonal bipyramid
molecular geometry: t-shaped
bond angle: < 90
electron domain: 5
non bonding electron pairs: 3
hybridization: sp3d
electron domain geometry: trigonal bipyramid
molecular geometry: linear
bond angle: 180
electron domain: 6
non bonding electron pairs: 0
hybridization: sp3d2
electron domain geometry: octahedral
molecular geometry: octahedral
bond angle: 90
electron domain: 6
non bonding electron pairs: 1
hybridization: sp3d2
electron domain geometry: octahedral
molecular geometry: square pyramid
bond angle: <90
electron domain: 6
non bonding electron pairs: 2
hybridization: sp3d2
electron domain geometry: octahedral
molecular geometry: square planar
bond angle: 90
heat of rxn in a bomb calorimeter
qrxn= -c (∆T)
c= heat capacity
how do you separate a homogenous mixture?
distillation
then use a condenser to cool evaporated compounds involved in distillations
buret is used in
titrations
determines concentrations
pipette
transfer small volumes
filter
separate heterogeneous mixture
separatory funnel
separates heterogenous mixtures
why does a nucleus weigh less than the sum of its neutrons and protons?
some of the nucleuses mass is converted into nuclear binding energy
electron affinity
energy is released when an atom gains an electron
electron negativity
tendency for an atom to attract electrons to itself in a bond
ionization energy
amount of energy required for an atom to lose an electron
real gas exhibits ideal gas behavior
at high temperature and low pressure
strongest interactions
largest charge and small size
lewis acid
accepts an electron pair
lewis base
donates an electron pair
rotten egg smell
sulfur
H2S
List order of energy of waves from least to strongest
Radiowaves < Microwaves < Infrared < Visible Light < Ultraviolet < X-Rays < Gamma rays
energy of wave is inverse to
wavelength
heating curve
voltaic/galvanic cell
electrolytic cell
diatomic elements
Hydrogen
- gas
Nitrogen
- gas
Oxygen
-gas
Fluorine
- gas
Chlorine
- gas
Bromine
- liquid
Iodine
- solid
Arrhenius Equation
k= Ae^(-Ea/RT)
According to Arrhenius Equation, an increase in temp. causes:
increase in rxn rate
increase in collision frequency
increase in rate constant
specific heat equation
q=mcs (Tf-Ti)
coordinate diagrams
if products and reactants are at the same level = isothermic
if products are at a lower level than the reactant, then ∆H is negative = exothermic (gives off heat)
if products are at a higher level than reactants, then
it is endothermic ( consumes heat )
activation energy determines
the minimum energy input necessary to start rxn
it is the high between the reactants and top of the hill
transition metals
High MP
several oxidation states
tendency to form brightly colored compounds
often paramagnetic
d block that are unfilled or half filled
metalloids
standard electrochemical cell potential
E cell = E reduction + E oxidation
+ E cell = spontaneous for oxidation reduction
titration curves
per straight line = amount of H in it
Q < K
shift to right (products)
Q > K
equilibrium shifts left (reactants)
Q=K
at equilibrium
zero order
horizontal and verticles both decrease
second order
horizontal increase
verticles decrease
first order
horizontals stay the same
verticles decrease
the normal freezing point
1 atm
the normal boiling point
1 atm
Grahams Law of Effusion
describes rate at which gas escapes or effuses from a container relative to another gas
when solute is added to a liquid:
Increase in BP
Increase in osmotic pressure
decrease in vapor pressure
decrease in freezing point
crystalline solids
longe range order
consistent crystal structure
well defined melting temp
break with cleavage along a straight plane
amorphous solids
short range order
no consistent structure
broad range of melting temperature
irregular breakage patterns
strong base and strong acid
ex. HCl and NaOH
salt formed: NaCl (neutral)
pH at equivalence: 7
weak acid and strong base
ex. HF + NaOH
Salt formed: NaF (basic)
pH equivalence: >7
weak base and strong acid
ex. NH3 + HCl
salt formed: NH3 + HCl
salt formed: NH4Cl (acidic)
pH at equivalence: <7
state function ( valve does not depend on how that state was achieved )
enthalpy
volume
mass
gibbs free energy
path functions (process matters + depend on the transition of the state )
work
heat
heat capacity
heat energy equation
q= mc∆t
q= heat transferred
m= mass
c= specific heat
t=temp change
charles law
v1/t1 = v2/t2
gases that are in the same temperature =
same kinetic energy
increase in temperature =
decreases in gases solubility
increase in pressure =
increase in gases solubility
Alkaline Buffer solution
mixture of weak base and conjugate acid
Acidic Buffer solution
mixture of a weak acid + conjugate base
isotope with the atomic mass closest to the avg. atomic mass is the
MOST ABUNDANT
spontaneous at all temps =
- ∆H
+∆S
-T∆S - ∆G
non spontaneous at all temps.
+∆H
- ∆S
+ T∆S
+∆G
spontaneous at low temp.
(-)∆H
(-) ∆S
+ T∆S
∆G depends
spontaneous at high temp.
+ ∆H
+ ∆S
- T∆S
∆G depends
a reducing agent is
oxidized
an oxidizing agent is
reduced
the molecule with the lowest reducing potential will be
oxidized in a chemical rxn
intermediates and products never appear
in the rate equation
intermediates are always
consumed in a rxn
temperature is related to
pressure, kinetic energy, and vapor pressure
lowering the KE will
cause the gas particles to condense
solutes with smaller solubilities product constant (ksp) valves
precipitate first
boyles law
pressure is inversely related to volume
metals are
good conductors of electricity
malleable
ductile
high melting point
when determining bond angles
the more lone pairs around the central atom = smaller the overall bond angles
