General Chemistry Flashcards
Total mass of substance present after a chemical reaction is the same as the total mass before the reaction
Law of Conservation of Mass (by lavoisier)
In a substance given, the relative numbers and kinds of atom are constant in a ratio of a small numbers
Law of Definite Proportion/ Constant Proportions ( by Proust)
When substances combine to form new products, the mass of the elements are represented in the ratio of small whole number
Law of Multiple Proportion (by Dalton)
Formula which shows the exact number of atoms
Molecular Formula
Formula which simplify atom counts to the lowest terms
Empirical Formula
A process that makes matter different from what it was, and is either visible or invisible.
Change
Change that does not change the identity of matter
Physical change
Change that does change the identity of matter
Chemical change
the smallest identifiable unit of matter
Atom
smaller particles such as proton, electron and neutrons are called
Subatomic particles
He coined the term “atom” for the smallest identifiable unit of matter
Democritus
Formed the atomic theory (founded on the 3 fundamental laws of chemistry)
John Dalton
Discovered the negatively-charged electrons via Cathode ray tube experiments , and assumed there are positively-charged particles balancing them out -> plum pudding model
JJ Thomson
He confirmed the positively-charged protons through Gold-foil method experiments and proposed them to be concentrated in a small area (the nucleus) -> nuclear model
Ernest Rutherford (with Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)
He discovered the uncharged neutrons by bombarding beryllium with polonium
James Chadwick
He measured the elementary electric charge through oil drop experiment
Robert Millikan
He formulated the uncertainty principle, stating that one cannot accurately determine both the momentum and position of an electron at the same time
Werner Heisenberg
He proposed that electros resides energy levels/ shells outside the nucleus -> planetary model
Niels Bohr
He improved on Bohr’s ideas and devised the quantum model where electrons lie dynamically in the electrons cloud rather than in fixed energy levels
Erwin Schrodinger
Solid to Liquid
Melting
Liquid to Solid
Freezing
Solid to Gas
Sublimitation
Gas to Solid
Deposition
Liquid to Gas
Evaporation
Gas to Liquid
Condensation
In an element, atomic numbers are composed of
Protons
In an element, Mass numbers are composed of
Protons & Neutrons
In naming a nuclide,
Protons = Same
Neutrons = Different
Mass number = Different
Isotopes
In naming a nuclide,
Protons = Different
Neutrons = Same
Mass number = Different
Isotones
In naming a nuclide,
Protons = Different
Neutrons = Different
Mass number = Same
Isobars
Space that accommodates 2 electrons
Orbitals
A section of the orbital that cannot hold electrons
Node
Starting from the P subshell, multiple orbitals of the same subshell have the same energies
Degenerate
In an atom with multiple energy levels and/or sublevels, the electrons are filled up from 1s onward in a predictable fashion by other of increasing energy
Aufbau principle
Electrons fill up degenerate orbitals singly first (+1/2) before pairing up
Hund’s rule
It states that every electron in an atom is unique. The textbook definition is “no two electrons have the same set of four quantum number”
Pauli Exclusion principle
Property to perform radioactive decay randomly
Radioactivity
The release of energy, which can be accompanied by change in the quantity of nucleons (either protons or neutrons)
Radioactive decay
Among 3 types of decay, which is the following;
Release of 2p and 2n
Loss of 4 in mass change
Alpha
Among 3 types of decay, which is the following;
Release of 1e accompanied by conversion 1n to 1p
no loss in mass change
Beta
Among 3 types of decay, which is the following;
Release of high energy photons
no loss in mass change
Gamma
He grouped a few elements into three, known as “triads” based on atomic mass
Dobereigner
They arranged periodic table using atomic mass and atomic volume
Dmitri Mendeleev (with Lothar Meyer)
He arranged the periodic table according to atomic mass to atomic number
Henry Moseley
Rows in periodic table are called
Period
Columns in periodic table are called
Group
s and p blocks are called
Representative elements
d block is called
Transition elements
f block is called
Lanthanides
In periodic trends, it is defined as size/radius of an atom
Atomic size
In periodic trends, it is defined as the energy required to remove an electron from an atom
Ionization energy
In periodic trends, it is defined as the energy released when an electron is added to an atom
Electron affinity
In periodic trends, it is defined as the ability of an atom to attract an electron to itself
Electronegativity
In periodic trends, it is defined as observable properties that arise from their relative in the periodic table
Metallic and Non-metallic strength
This bond is formed when two separate elements merge orbitals into one, that orbital having two electrons (a bonding pair)
Chemical bond
Any electron that did not bond is called
Lone pair
This chemical bond may be classified in presence of charges
Polarity
bond polarity which includes “sharing “ leans toward equality (no polarity)
Covalent
bond polarity which includes “giving” leans toward immense inequality (polarity)
Ionic
This is the number of bonds between two elements
Bond order
Bond that has the longest length, and weakest strength
Single bond
Bond that has mid-length, and mid-strength
Double bond
Bond that has shortest length, and strongest strength
Triple bond
The attraction between two different entities (atoms or molecules) due to opposite charges
Intermolecular forces
Charge that are stronger permanent ones
Dipole
Charge that are weaker temporary ones
Induced-dipole
Strongest Intermolecular Forces (Ion + anything polar)
Ion-dipole
Intermolecular Forces:
Something with OH, NH, or FH + anything polar
Hydrogen bond
Intermolecular Forces:
anything polar + anything polar
Dipole-Dipole bond
Intermolecular Forces:
anything polar + non-anything polar
Dipole-Induce dipole bond
Intermolecular Forces:
non-anything polar + non-anything polar
Induced dipole-Induced dipole (London dispersion)
Identify the reaction:
A+B 🡪 AB
Combination/ Synthesis
Identify the reaction:
AB → A + B
Decomposition/ Analysis
Identify the reaction:
A + BC → AC + B
Single displacement
Identify the reaction:
AB + CD → AD + CB
Double displacement
Reaction that do not easily fall in the first 4 patterns
REDOX
Increase in charge, Lose electrons, Reducing agent, Anode performs
Oxidation [O]
Decrease charge, gain electrons, Oxidizing agent, Cathode performs
Reduction [H]
Reaction based on Reversibility:
Signified by single arrow,
Ends with 100% products and 0% reactants; only moves forward and no going back
caused by strong electrolyte
Irreversibility
Reaction based on Reversibility:
Signified by double arrow,
Ends with less than 100% products and some remaining reactants; can go backward and forward
caused by weak electrolyte
Reversible
Thermodynamic and laws:
States the total amount of energy possessed by a substance
Gibb’s free energy [G]
Thermodynamic and laws:
Total heat content of a substance
Enthalpy [H]
Thermodynamic and laws:
Degree of disorder in the substance
Entropy [S]
If two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body, then they are also in equilibrium with each other
Zeroth law
Energy can not be created nor destroyed, but only converted from one form to another
The thermodynamic calculations of energy will differ depending on the system.
First law
Entropy always increase over time
Second law
Entropy of a system is zero only when the temperature approaches absolute zero
Third law
Chemical kinetics which temporary state where the reactants/ substrate transitions into the product
Transition state
Chemical kinetics which energy that must be raised from the reactant to the transition state
Activation Energy [Ea]
as the barrier, higher Ea slows a reaction
Lowered (-) Gibb’s free energy and Enthalpy
Exergonic/ Exothermic
Spontaneous
Raised (+) Gibb’s free energy and Enthalpy
Endergonic/ Endothermic
nonspontaneous
A substance that speeds up the rate of an ongoing reaction by reducing the activation energy
Catalyst
The rate of forward and backward reactions now become constant
Equilibrium constant
Mathematical formula of Equilibrium constant according to law of mass action
Keq =[product]/[reactant]
It states that a stress given to a reaction in equilibrium will be balanced by shifting the reaction away from that stress
Le Chatelier’s Principle
Identify the reaction stress:
Increase something-shift away from that side (“common ion effect”)
Decrease something-shift to that side
Concentration
Identify the reaction stress:
Make sure first that
1. all reactants and products are gasses
2. there is inequality in total moles
Increase pressure - shift away from that side
Decrease pressure - shift to that side
Pressure
Identify the reaction stress:
If exothermic, imagine the heat to be PRODUCT
- heating - to reactant (backward)
- cooling - to product (forward)
If endothermic, imagine the heat to be REACTANT
- heating - to product (forward)
- cooling - to reactant (cooling)
Temperature
Ka (acid dissociation constant) and Kb (base dissociation constant) equilibrium
Acid-Base equilibria
Ksp stands for
Solubility equilibria
If Q < Ksp
Unsaturated
If Q = Ksp
Saturated
If Q > Ksp
Supersaturated
It deals with the quantity of reactants and products involved in chemical reactions
Stoichiometry
Substance completely consumed in a chemical reaction. If this runs out, reaction stops
Limiting reagent
Substance present in quantities greater than needed for the limiting reagent. If the limiting reagent runs out, it is what left behind.
Excess reagent
The amount of product created based purely on calculations. It is depends on the limiting agent.
Theoretical yield
The amount of product created based purely on what is reflected in the actual experiment
Actual yield
Ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical yield ((AY/TY) x 100%)
Percent yield
Hydrogen ion donor
Hydroxide donor
Arrhenius
Arrhenius acid
Hydrogen ion donor
Arrhenius base
Hydroxide donor
Proton donor
Proton acceptor
BronsTed-Lowry
Bronsted-lowry Acid
Proton donor
Bronsted-lowry Base
Proton acceptor
Electron acceptor
Electron donor
Lewis
Lewis acid
Electron acceptor
Lewis base
Electron donor
Higher [H+] means
lower pH/ higher pOH (more acidic)
Higher [OH-]
higher pH/ lower pOH (more basic)
enough to convert all reactants to 100% products.
(i.e. irreversible reaction, no equilibrium)
Strong acid/base
It did not make 100% products and has leftover reactants (i.e. has reversible reactions, and therefore has equilibrium); includes majority if organic compounds which follows the Bronsted-Lowry definition
Weak acid/base
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
HCl
Strong acid
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
Lithium Hydroxide
Strong base
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
H2SO4
Strong acid
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
Barium hydroxide
Strong base
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
HNO3
Strong acid
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
Strontium hydroxide
Strong base
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
HI
Strong acid
Identify if strong acid or strong base:
Calcium hydroxide
Strong base
Strong acids are the followings:
HCl, HClO4, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4
Strong bases are the followings:
Lithium hydroxide, Sodium hydroxide, Potassium hydroxide, Calcium hydroxide, Strontium hydroxide, Barium hydroxide
Acids can remove H+ to become?
Conjugate bases
Bases can receive H+ to become?
Conjugate acids
It involves a combination of a weak acid/base and their conjugate.
It also withstand drastic changes in pH
Buffers
It has or involves two non metals
Molecular compounds
It has or involves a metal and non metal
Ionic compounds
4th state; most abundant state of matter.
Plasma/ Ionized Gas
simplest form of substance.
Elements
2 or more chemical united (separated via chemical means)
Compounds
2 or more substance wherein individual substance identifies are retained (separated via physical means. Alcohol + Water via distillation)
Mixture
1 phase; solution *clear colored
Homogeneous
2 phases; suspension, colloid *ex. milk
Heterogeneous
“Dependent”
* Length, mass/weight, volume, pressure, entropy, enthalpy, electrical resistance
Extrinsic Property
“Independent”
* Density/ SpGr (water = 1g/ml or cc), viscosity (resistance to flow), velocity (m/sec), temperature, color
Intrinsic Property
He discovered anode rays
Eugene Gold Stein
The particle separation based on e-
Electrochemistry
spherical shape shell
S
dumbbell- shape shell
P
Atoms may be built by progressive filling of energy of main energy sub level (i.e., levels of lower energy levels are occupied first)
Aufbau Principle
main energy level; size of orbital (electron cloud), distance of e- from nucleus
Principal Quantum Number
Angular momentum & shape of orbital; subshell
Azimuthal/ Angular Momentum
Also known as Magnetic moment/ Rotation
Magnetic Spin
Quantum theory which states the number 2 e- will have same set of quantum number (“exclusive”)
Pauli’s exclusion theory
Quantum theory which states the impossible to predict/ accurately determine the particle’s velocity (position & momentum)
Heisenberg’s uncertainty theory
Quantum theory which states the Orbitals are filled up singly before pairing up
Most stable arrangement of e- in subshells is the one with greatest no. of parallel spins.
Hund’s rule
Total pressure in a mixture (non-interacting gases) is equal to the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Thermodynamic system which allows exchange of energy and matter
Open System
Thermodynamic system which allows exchange of energy but not matter
Closed System
Thermodynamic system which does not allow exchange of both energy and matter
Isolated System “Adiabatic Walls”
Reaction rate theory where the rate of chemical reaction is proportional to the number of collisions per time
Collision Theory
Dissolution rate is directly proportional to the solute surface area, solute concentration at boundary layer, and diffusion coefficient
Noyes Whitney equation
study of the production of electricity from energy released
during spontaneous and nonspontaneous chemical reactions
Electrochemistry
Spontaneous emission of particles/ ionizing radiation by unstable nuclei of heavier elements (p+-to-n 0 ratio) (atomic # 92 and above: transuranic elements)
Radioactivity
