General cards Flashcards
1
Q
What did the unification of Italy do to the political system of the nation?
A
• Created a constitution that guranteed equality before the law, rights of free assembly and a free press• Established a constitutional monarchy with the king head of state - able to appoint and dismiss ministers/senators. Usually controlled foreign policy • A bicameral legislature - Senate and Chamber of Deputies
2
Q
How did the king and prime minister interact?
A
King - head of state, able to appoint and dismiss ministers/senators. Usually controlled foreign policy, the face in a crisisPrime Minister - head of government, ran the day-to-day. Needed support of government to keep power
3
Q
What issues did the unification bring for the people?
A
• Significant differences between the unified states - language, culture and politics• In 1861 between 2.5-10% of Italians spoke standard Italian• Not everyone supported unification
4
Q
What political weaknesses developed in Italy after unification?
A
• Small franchise - only 2% of the country could vote, people felt alienated• Party system was weak, led to reliance on trasformismo and instability of the governments formed
5
Q
What were the key groups in Italian politics? Name their key interests
A
• Liberals - desired uniformity/order. For the educated middle classes• Radicals/Republicans - called for change to the Italian political system. Abolition of monarchy power• Socialists - aimed to further working class rights (universal suffrage, women’s rights, 8hr working day)• Catholics - catholicism, withdrew from political life. Pope did not acknowledge Italy as a state til 1929• Nationalists - aggressive, expansionist foreign policy. create a create Italian empire
6
Q
What industrial issues did Italy experience in the early 20th century?
A
• Industrial growth limited - only in Northern Italy. In 1914 55% of industrial income generated in Milan, Genoa and Turin• Lack of key resources such as iron, steel, coal meant a need to import them• Labour force large but unskilled
7
Q
What positive things happened for the Italian economy in the early 20th century?
A
• Between 1901 - 11: exports increased at a rate of 4.5% a year and the number of workers involved in production increased by 2 million • Workers conditions and wage increased
8
Q
What happened in regards to agriculture in Italy?
A
• In the north subsidence farming ended sue to more effective manufacturing methods BUT this contributed to social divisions grew due to insatiability of work and more political agitation• In the south deforestation, disease, earthquakes in Calabria (1905) and the eruption of Vesuvius (1906) and Etna (1910) and a tidal wave in 1908 all damaged crops. Southern hatred of the government grew
9
Q
What was the effect of poverty on the Italian people?
A
• Typhus, rickets and cholera were much more widespread in Italy than other European nations• Tuberculosis and malaria killed people frequently even going into the mid 1930s • Disease and illness significantly worsened by mas migration leading to cramped living conditions • Illiteracy rates were high - 80% in the south and 42% in the north
10
Q
Name the one successful policy introduced by Liberal government
A
Universal manhood suffrage was introduced in 1912
11
Q
Give evidence of unsuccessful policies introduced by the Liberal government between 1900 -1913
A
• Between 1901 -13 200,000 Italians left Southern Italy each year due to extreme poverty• 1910/11 25,000 peope in Naples died of cholera w/half of the population in this area illiterate• 1911 - half of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers were employed in northern provinces of Lombardy, Liguria and Piedmont
12
Q
What were the 6 issues that Giolitti’s government faced between 1911-1914?
A
• The ANI - nationalists• The PSI - socialist• Catholics• Libyan war• Extension of the franchise• Economic weaknesses
13
Q
How did the ANI cause Giolitti’s government problems?
A
• By compromising with the PSI, the Liberal government lost the support of the ANI and increasingly posed a threat to both parties• Took credit for the Libyan war, claiming they forced the govt.’s hand • They grew in power between 1910 and, greater organisation under Corradini• Had a number of educated middle class supporters who wanted to undermine the socialist and bring about a new dynamic Italy
14
Q
How did the PSI cause Giolitti’s government problems?
A
• Giolitti sacrificed relations with the church in order to sustain support from the PSI so couldn’t solve Roman question•A faction within called the Maximilists believed in violence and undermined the ties between the Liberals and PSI
15
Q
How did the catholic party cause Giolitti’s government issues?
A
• Encouraged the Invasion of Libya die to economic investment in the country • Didn’t resolve the Roman question due to aim to keep PSI support and did not give the pope any concessions
16
Q
What happened with the Libyan War?
A
• Invasion in the 29th September 1911• Gained Control on October 8th
17
Q
Why did the Libyan war backfire on Giolitti?
A
• Had been in hope to absorb the nationalists but the party took credit for the invasion • PSI refused to work with Giolitti after that due to their anti-interventionist/anti military stance and that the money could have been invested in Italy• Also led to a call for the extension of the franchise
18
Q
Why did the franchise extend to working class men?
A
• Libyan war resulting in an argument that men could serve but not vote • 700,000 troops and naval officers and all men over 30 got the vote
19
Q
Why did the franchise extension cause an issue for Giolitti?
A
• 70% of the electorate were no illiterate increasing number who could be bribed/corrupted and had a lack of knowledge of politics • Men who fought in the war more likely to be nationalistic • In the 1913 election liberal deputies lost 71 seats and trasformismo no longer worked and Giolitti stepped down in 1914
20
Q
What economic weaknesses did Italy face under Giolitti?
A
• 200,000 people left south Italy a year due to poverty• 1911 - Genoa, Turin and Milan accounted for 55% of industrial output whilst the south as a whole only contributed 29% • Internal mass migration, poverty and disease created problems for the government and they could not resolve them
21
Q
What initially happened in Italy at the start of WW1?
A
• Italy had been part of the triple alliance since 1882• Italy did not join the war straight away as Austria had not told Italy of its plan to declare war on Serbia before• Nationalist called for Italy to honour commitments to the alliance • Many believed that the war would create strain on the economy and that the population was uninterested
22
Q
How did the declaration of neutrality at the start of the war affect Italian politics?
A
• Split the liberals sparking political crisis• Worries Germany won they’d not be sympathetic to a neutral ally
23
Q
Why did Italy get involved in the war and switch sides in the conflict?
A
• Salandra wanted means to implement authoritarian restrictive laws and also secure political power with a military win• Britain, France and Russia offered the irrdente lands to Italy if they won which was better than what was offered by the Germans and Austrians
24
Q
What was signed on the 26th April 1915?
A
The Treaty of London - committed Italy to support the triple entente
25
What were The political consequences of the treaty of London?
• PSI, Catholic party and Pope all opposed it• Prefects (local govt. reps) reported there was no appetite for war• Giolitti and 300 deputies opposed it, Salandra resigned, Giolitti asked to form a ministry but King threatened to abdicate if Treaty of London not honoured so Salandra reinstated on the 16th May
26
When did Italy declare war on Austria?
25th May 1915
27
Name economic issues that occurred during WW1
• Italy was behind Austria on all war industries - for every 2 machine guns an Italian battalion had Austria had the Austrians had 12• Resentment and unrest amongst industrial workers occurred due to 25% wage fall and most workers did not support the war • Government raised taxes which was unpopular and created social divisions, and north-south divisions increased too • All economic growth at the time was only located in war industries thus collapsed when peacetime was reached
28
What economic benefits did the war bring?
• Fiat established as Europe's top truck industry produced 25,000 in 1918• Aeroplane industry produces 6,500 planes in 1918• Produced 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery which was more than the British
29
How did the war create political tensions?
• Impact of 1916 Trentine offensive on public morale and army led to criticism of Salandra and forced to resign• Failures at Caparetto resulted in the suicide of a senator Leopaldo Franchetti and several resignations• Neutralist that made up the majority of parliament blamed for war failures, calls to be put on trial for treason • Only nations whose opposition continued to opposed during the war• PSI opposition worsened left-right divide, also blamed by Mussolini who called them a greater threat than the Austrians for their 'not support nor sabotage' tactic
30
How did the war create some political unity?
• Salandra replacement Orlando focused more on boosting morale, promise land reform to conscripting peasants, created welfare to support soldiers and families • General Diaz improved military tactics, casualty rates fell considerably from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918
31
How did the war increase social tensions?
• Of 5 million conscripts the majority were southern peasants and treated badly by commanders• A lack of discipline in army punished by severe punishments, 400 death sentences passed on soldiers•Captured soldier abandoned by army - suffered 1,000 calories a day, 100,000 dying of hunger-related illnesses
32
What happened at the Battle of Caporetto?
• October 1917 - Austrian army attacked the Italian front line and Italian army dissolved into chaos and retreat • Many soldiers fled down mountain side, many weaponless and reports that choas (looting, violence) amonsgt army who thought the war was over• 200,000 Italians lost contact with regiment• 10,000 killed, 30,000 wounded, 400,000 simply vanished
33
How did the Italians see some success during the war?
• October 1918 Italian troops lanches an offensive across the Piave and at the Battle of Vittorio Vento split the army in two• Austria signed an armistice on November 4th 1918
34
What problems did the war leave Italy with
• Went from having 2.9 billion lire in debt pre-war to 23 billion after• 650,00 casulties• Divisions between those who'd supported the war and those who hadn't • Returning soldiers and meeting commitments made to conscripts
35
What happened at the Paris Peace Conference?
• Orlando argued that Italy was due the land promised in the Treaty of London plus Fiume• Other nations did not see Italy as a great power or contributing enough to the war so rejected this• Orlando walked out of the conference and gained very little from the Treaty of Versailles - got Trent, Triste and Northern Dalmatia
36
What was the effect of the Paris peace conference in Italy?
• Worsened disquiet and anger with 650,000 death seen to be for nothing • Became known as the mutilated victory • Showed the weakness if the liberal government and lack of great power status
37
Why did the occupation of Fiume occur?
Anger at the mutilated victory
38
What happened during the occupation of Fiume
• Fascist leader d'Aunnzio took 2,000 men consisting of ex-soldier, futurists, students and patriots to seized Fiume on 12th Sept 1919• Occupied until Christmas Day 1920
39
What was Mussolini's background before he was the leader of the Fascist Party?
• Grew up socialist • Jailed for socialist activities and was editor of socialist newspaper in 1910• Expelled from socialist party for supporting WW1
40
Describe the Fascist vision in 1919
• Italy led by the ex-servicemen of WW1 - trincerocrazia created by the military bond help to govern• A politically, economically and socially united country• Nationalism was key
41
Describe the Fascist views of labour in 1919
• 8hr working day• Minimum wage with workers representatives • Establish same confidence in labour unions as given to industry executives
42
Describe the Fascist views of taxation/govt. ownership in 1919
• Strong progressive tax on capital• Revision of military contracts and seizure of 85% of their profits• Armermanets factories nationalised• Reorganisation of the railways and transport sector
43
What did the Fascists want to do with military affairs in 1919?
• Create short-service national militia• Peaceful but competitive foreign policy
44
What were the opinions of the church, monarch and social elites in 1919?
• Anti-clerical & wanted to confiscate all their property • Abolition of bishoprics • Create a republic• Remove all noble titles
45
What did Fascist produce in May 1920?
The New Programme
46
What was the Fascist's vision under the New Programme?
• A politically, economically and socially united country• Nationalism was key
47
Describe the New Programme's labour policy
• Anti-socialist, with fascist unions to replace current once • No mention of minimum wage
48
Describe the New Programme's taxation policy
• No mention of nationalisation. but nationalised industries to be privatised• Proportional tax system
49
Describe the New Programme's foreign policy
• Compulsory military service• Raise Italy to great power status• Provide training for future soldiers through education
50
Describe the New Programme's attitudes towards the church, monarchy and elites
No attacks on any of these groups, their property or power
51
When and how was the fascist party formed?
• 23rd March 1919 • Mussolini called together representatives of round 20 ex-servicemen leagues to form the Fasci di Combattimento/Fasci
52
Why did the squadristi form?
• Early fascist predominately made up of arditi - crack troop commandoes formed following Caparetto, wore black shirts associated with the fascist movement• Formed themselves into small, military units called squadristi
53
How did WW1 contributes to the growth of the Fascist party between 1919-1922?
• The war created a strong culture of violence amongst the returning soldiers• They begun to view the socialists as an internal threat within Italy • The Mutilated Victory highlighted the weakness of the liberal government, turned military against them• Alignment with the militaristic views of the PNF who promised a better solution to the post war problems
54
What evidence is there of weakness of the Liberal state between 1919 and September 1922?
• After squadristi violence on 15th April 1919, no fascists arrested or attempts to close down their actions• February 1920 - production of wheat fell 38 million quintals compared to pre-war levels of 52 million, industrial production also falling 15%• The Beinnio Rosso strikes lasting a month in 1920• Spring 1921 - police looked other way as fascists crushed socialist power in Emilia & Tuscany• May 1921 - election resulting in no one party controlling parliament , trasformismo no longer worked • By July 1922 violence weakened PM Facta with PNF de facto government in many of Italy's provinces
55
How did the weakness of the liberal state contribute to the rise of the Facists?
• They appeared to be inept at tackling the issues faced by Italy - socialism, economic problems, rebuilding after the war• Pushed the public towards more extreme parties - PNF, PSI
56
What actions did fascists take in response to the rise of socialism in Italy between 1919 and September 1922?
• 15th April 1919 - 200-300 fascists burnt down 'Avanti!' newspaper, three socialists and a fascist killed• First 5 months of 1921 saw 200 people killed in clashes between socialists and fascists• Took control of Emilia and Tuscany in Spring 1921• May 1921 elections - saw 100 socialist sympathisers killed • Attacked areas across Italy with socialist controlled local councils in 1922• By September 1922 - squads controlled areas around Rome, were ready to seize capital
57
How did the fear of socialism contribute to the rise of the fascist party?
• Highlighted weakness of Liberals to stop rise of socialism e.g 1919 got greatest share of votes at 32%, 1920 they controlled 26/69 provinces in Italy, won 123 seats in May 1921 elections• Wealthy in Italy (conservative elites, wealthy industrialist) happy to see socialism stopped - wanted to keep wealth and power• Seen to be removing socialist threat, added to the fascist propaganda
58
How did Mussolini's actions and popularity contribute to the fascist party's success between 1919 and September 1922?
• Encouraged the formation of more squadristi across Italy• Introduced the New Programme after realising the first one was too socialist• Propaganda - 'the fascists save ital from soclaism' • August 1921 Established self as sole leader of movement, elevate fascism above a group of thugs but a political movement• Stopped violence to gain support of the middle classes • 1922 Dual policy - said he would use democratic parliamentary meant to gain power, but still encouraged the violence of squads to the fascist party
59
Give evidence for the rise in popularity of the Fascists between 1919 and 1922
• 1919 November elections - got less than 5,000 votes and no seats• 1921 May elections - won 35 seats • Grown to 320,000 members by July 1922
60
How did the March on Rome start?
• Ras (squadristi leaders) wanted to take over the capital but Mussolini wanted to be appointed Prime Minster democratically due to it giving him a stronger position• 16th October 1922 - A plan to have 300,000 fascists march on Rome was created, mainly to blackmail politicians• 24th October - Mussolini made a speech to squadristi in Naples asserting that the PNF must be given power of face the seizing of Rome
61
What happned on 27th October 1922?
Starting in Milan squadristi took over government offices, railway stations and police stations
62
How did politicians and officials respond to the March on Rome?
• 2 am 28th Oct - King ready to declare state of emergency, have Mussolini arrested• 9 am - King decides not to sign the declaration of emergency• 29th October - King asked Mussolini to become prime minister
63
How did various politicians' actions contribute to Mussolini's appointment?
• Facta - seen to be weak, king had no confidence in him, he resigned• Salandra - convinced king not to sign the emergency decree due to desire to become PM• Orlando - said he'd work with Mussolini in a fascist coalition if he could be PM• Giolitti - failure to stop socialism and fascism become popular (due to ineffective governance)Many liberals were too concerned with fighting off own party members and underestimated Mussolini so called for his appointment
64
How did the King contribute to Mussolini's appointment to power?
• Didn't sign emergency decree - lack of confidence in Facta, fear military wouldn't stop them fascist and hint from Mussolini of being replaced by the Duke of Aosta (his cousin) • Asked Mussolini to become the Prime Minister
65
Why did Mussolini decide to call a general election in 1924?
To provide the PNF with a parliamentary mandate
66
What was the problem with the calling of an election?
The system of proportional representation made it hard to secure a majority
67
Why did Mussolini pass the Acerbo Law?
To make it easier to secure a parliamentary majority for himself
68
What did the Acerbo Law state?
That 2/3 of parliamentary seats would go to the party that wom more than 25% of the vote
69
What happened with the Acerbo Law?
• PCI and PSI opposed it • Liberal elites (incl. Giolitti), king and vatican supported it• Fascist demonstrations threatening took place in Tuscany and Umbria if the bill didn't pass, Mussolini wore a black shirt to parliament the next day• Law was passed and an election called for the 6th if April
70
Describe the events of the 1924 election
• Tainted by violence and intimidation - Blackshirts destroyed hundred of opposition buildings and clubs, murdered PSI candidate Antoni Piccinini • Several prominant liberals (Orlando and Salandra incl.) ran on the fascist's 'National List'
71
What was the result of the 1924 election?
• Turn out 64%• Mussolini gained 66.3% of the vote, Acerbo law was redundant• fascists went from 35 deputies to 275
72
What were the other reason (beside fascist violence) did Mussolini win the 1924 election?
• Weakness of the opposition, unable to unite against the fascists• electoral support of prominent liberals• Belief that Mussolini could provide strong leadership Italy needed
73
When did Giacomo Matteotti give his speech to parliament? What was is about?
• 30 May 1924 • PCI (communist) leader spoke out about corruption and violence during election, claimed fascist only won due to violence• Also claimed to have a large file of fascist party corruption that he was about to make public
74
What happened to Matteotti after he gave his speech?
• 10 June 1924: kidnapped as he walked towards parliament• 16th August 1924: found in a shallow grave outside Rome. Stabbed with a carpenter's file
75
How was Mussolini tied with Matteotti's murder?
People witnessed the kidnapping• Number plate of car he was dragged to belonged to Mussolini's press secretary, Cesare Rossi• Leader of the kidnapping was Amerigo Dumini who was head of the Italian terror squad/secret police/cheka (arrested 12th June)
76
From where did Mussolini face pressure after Matteotti's murder?
• Established elites - concerned about PM being associated with murder• PSI, PCI and antifacsit parties - called for his dismissal/fascists to be overthrown• The ras - saw it to be the start of a violent fascist revolution, with Mussolini stalling
77
What happened on the 13th June 1924?
100 antifascists left parliament to establish their own on the Aventine Hill outside Rome
78
What were the consequences of the creation of the Aventine Secession?
• Deputites couldnt agree on what to do, did not threaten Mussolini at all• Dstroyed hope of parliament winning a vote to dismiss Mussolini• Gave king excuse to do nothing
79
Why did the King, The Pope, the army and business/political elites continue to support Mussolini?
Believed him/PNF were the best option with a strong right wing anti-communist government
80
How did Mussolini sustain confidence in his government until December 1924?
• Appointed positions of interior and justice minster Luigi Ferderzinu and Alfredo Rocco • November 1924 - satisfied army demands. PNF to cease all forms of violence, removal of members who ignored this order, officers of the MVSN (army) had to swear an oath of loyalty to King and Mussolini
81
What happened in December 1924?
• 29th - Salandra declared opposition to Mussolini, threatening to leave PNF/Liberal coalition• 31st - Squad leaders demanded Mussolini defend a fascist revolution or they would remove him as the leader of the PNF
82
What happened on the 3rd of January 1925?
• Mussolini announced to parliament he was establishing a personal fascist dictatorship (took responsibilty for violence but blamed opposition for break down in democracy)
83
What did Mussolini do throughout 1925 to establish a more secure dictatorship?
• 12th Jan - Formed a new cabinet without most of the liberals • February - Farinicci appointed PNF deputy to purge part radicals. Party membership went up from 600,000 to 938,000 diluting the power of the ras and squadristi • October - The Palazzo Viodini Pact established leaving only fascist unions in place to represent workers. Fascist Grand Council forced the ras to disband their squads• December - role of PM became Head of Government and the Duce of Fascism and parliament no longer able to remove the PM through a vote
84
How did the arrest of Tito Zaniboni (PSU deputy) help Mussolini establish a more secure dictatorship?
• August 1925 - allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini • PSU immediately banned, introduced new press law with all journalism now state approved and passed a law giving the government power to sack any employee whose actions/words went against PNF
85
Name the actions taken by Mussolini in 1926 to further enforce his rule?
• January - granted ability to rule by decree • October - another assassination attempt. All political parties except PNF banned, Aventine deputies permanently excluded from parliament, Antonio Gramsci arrested. Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State set up to prosecute anti-fascist
86
What did most opposition leaders do after 1926?
Estimated 10,000 fled to exile in France and elsewhere with their citizenship withdrawn and property confiscated
87
How did Mussolini finally gain control over all of Italy?
• The elected government abolishes, with mayors replaced by podesta who were appointed by local fascist prefects • Prefects (directly accountable to Mussolini) held most powerful regional position not the ras• PNF secretary said that any dispute between the ras and prefects that the prefects would come first
88
What had happened by the end of 1926
Mussolini had established a personal dictatorship where neither his party or parliament could pose a threat to him
89
What were Mussolini's aims in regards to his domestic policy?
• Control the population• Create a loyal nation of fascists• To be popular
90
Name 7 ways Mussolini aimed to fulfil the aims of his domestic policy
• Indoctrination of education and the youth• Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND)• Press control and censorship• Propaganda• Creating the cult of il Duce• Creating a fascist culture• Making a terror state
91
How did Mussolini indoctrinate the boys of Italy?
• April 1926 the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was created for the 'physical and moral benefit' of boys aged 8-18 based mainly around physical fitness• Membership compulsory 6-11, but in 1939 it was made compulsory for all ages • Prior to 1939 membership provided access to jobs, scholarships, not being a part made it hard to enrol in further education and barred from future civil service employment
92
How did Mussolini indoctrinate the girls of Italy?
• Figlie della Lapa (6-8), Piccole Italiane (8-13) and Giovane Italiane (14-17) were the girls equivalent of the ONB, focused around physical fitness too
93
In what other ways were youth indoctrinated in fascist Italy?
• 1929 Ministry of National Education created and all youth organisations placed under its control (only Catholic Action allowed to remain)• All teacher had to be part of the PNF by 1933
94
What was the point of indoctrinating children in fascist Italy?
• Wanted to make Italy a great nation - turn boys into fascist soldiers and girls into good fascist wives • Centralising the education system and extracurricular activities made this easier
95
Evidence of the success of Mussolini's youth policy
• 1937 prior to compulsory membership youth organisations had 7 million members • Northern children seen to enjoy activities more • Boys tended to enjoy participation in activities
96
Evidence of the failure of Mussolini's youth policy
• Motivation to participate not necessarily out of loyalty to the PNF - preferable to learning in class, social occassions, easier to get future employment • Girls disliked groups due to being too focused on being mothers, 1937 survey said they were more interested in the boys' activities • In the south, as children left school earlier to become agriculture workers, it was harder to indoctrinate
97
What was the OND?
• The National Afterwork Organisation• Set up 1925 after the closure of socialist organisations • Provided recreation and welfare
98
What benefits did the OND provide?
• Bars, billiard halls, cycling groups, libraries and radios, discounts on rail tickets • Each section had a clubhouse where activties were provided. Plays, films and concerts provided• Acted as a welfare organisation at times relief was needed • Subsidised holidays and excursions
99
What was odd about the OND?
• It was politically neutral
100
What evidence is there of the OND being a successful piece of domestic policy?
• 4 million members • Argument from Mussolini that through creating l better lives for workers that people were more likely to tolerate/accept fascism and not challenge it
101
What evidence is there of the OND being an unsuccessful piece of domestic policy?
• Political neutrality means that members could just join for benefits and not necessarily creating a loyal nation of fascists
102
How was the press censored in fascist Italy?
• 1926 saw laws restricting freedom of press sanctioned• Government able confiscate whole editions of newspapers, journals or magazines that was deemed unfavourable• Could shut down press organisations completely - Avanti! and L'Unita (left-wing press) an example of this• Journalists had to be part of a fascist union which controlled access to jobs and promotions• Stories remained government approved as well as subsidises given to newspapers that printed positive stories about Mussolini
103
What did Mussolini still allow in terms of censorship?
• Did not focus on banning news but more censorship• Only 10% of newspaper sales was Fascist newspapers
104
How effective was censorship in Italy?
Very• Made it hard to challenge fascist control • Helped to conceal problems from public consciousness
105
What propaganda used to contribute to Mussolini's domestic policy aims?
• Emphasises what united Italians• The cult of Ancient Rome was emphasised - 1 million visited exhibitions of Roman history that emphasised its greatness & tied it with modern Italy • Mussolini linked to being the heir of Augustus who rebuilt Italy to be a great power after war and chaos • World cup victories in 1934 and 1938 used as propaganda tools • Spread via newspaper, radio, cinema and posters
106
Was the propaganda effective in Italy?
It was hard for people to hold opposing views due to censorship but• Ministry of propaganda not set up till Ministry of Press in 1935, became Ministry of popular culture in 1937. It wasn't very sophsitocated failured to utilse modern mediums • Lack of mass media in the south anyway• Questionable of how transformative it was for attiudes in Italy
107
How was the cult of il Duce created?
• Through posters, cinema, newsreels, radio broadcasts that sought to portray Mussolini as a leader of immense power and ability• Slogan 'Mussolini is always right'• 30 million pictures circulated of Mussolini in 2500 poses• Described as a superb swimmer and aviator • Frequently photographed shirtless
108
What was the purpose of the cult of il Duce?
• Establishment of personal dictatorship • Show he was the head figure of the PNF• Convery him of being of traditional family values• Link him with Ceaser and Augustus and leading the nation to greatness
109
How far did the cult of il Duce work?
Very successful for Mussolini's personal image and sustained to control Italian people to admire him but• Didn't create loyalty to PNF• Harder to sustained as Mussolini kept power and failed to achieve aims as well as-as he aged
110
How was there a creation of fascist culture?
Policy introduced for artists and intellectuals that all art should serve goals of the fascist state and its mythology/images
111
What examples of Italian fascist culture is there?
• 1926 - National Institute of Fascist Culture created (artists/intellectuals organised into groups) - organised cultural events and free concerts to encourage mass participation • PNF funded Italian film industry, creating a state of the art production in the late 1930s, films made to glorify Fascism's achievement eg Vecchia Guardia, Pilot and The Seige of Alcazar • 1932 - Celebration of 10-year od fascist rule, had 4 million visitors• Theatre - creation of 3 plays providing stories of 3 great patriotic leaders to encourage a link between Mussolini, Napoleon and Cesar, Mussolini proposed the original idea
112
How successful was the influence of the fascist culture for fascist domestic policy?
• It was produced efficiently and were good at controlling what was producedHowever• It was never focused upon a coherent message
113
What tactics did Mussolini used to generate a terror state in Italy?
• November 1926: All other political parties were banned• Death penalty introduced for those who threatened state security or tried to kill the king or Mussolini • The creation of Confino under Special Tribunals - financially devastating, destroyed reputation, hard to get job afterwards. 12,000 sent between 1926-40• Late 1926: Political police division formed under Arturo Bocchini - used spy network to infiltrate/break up anti fascist groups • 1927: OVRA set up by Bocchini - 5,000 informers, infiltrated universities, businesses and fascist groups. Mail examined and phi one calls listened too • Around 5000 put in prison/concentration camps on islands such as Lipari
114
What evidence is there that the terror state was successful?
• 13,547 trials by special tribunal • Created incentives to not spread anti PNF/anti-Mussolini • No need for mass persecution demonstrates good control • Main worries were the Slovenians not anti fascists • The fascist were able to extend control into France for political assassinations of exiled political leaders
115
Give evidence of the failure of the Italian terror state
• Confino wasn't permanent with people able to simply return form the south• Argument that there was not need for a terror state due to the fact that the regime was mainly popular amongst the people
116
What 6 groups within Italy did Mussolini have to work alongside?
• The King• Central government• Local government• Conservative elites• The PNF • The church
117
How did Mussolini deal with the political balancing act that was his relationship with King Emmanuel III?
• King remained head of state with sole power to remove power• Mussolini reduced some of the king's powers - Dec 1928 The Fascist Ground Council given right to nominate/advise king on the next PM and March 1938 King and Mussolini shared the highest rank in military, 1940 Mussolini took charge of military
118
How did the King react to Mussolini's actions?
Made little effort to prevent erosion of powers and happy to be subservient as long as he retained title
119
How did Mussolini's relationship with the king help?
It encouraged the armed forces and state administration who were loyal to the king to accept a fascist dictatorship
120
How did Mussolini limit the powers of central government?
• He was now only accountable to the king• Parliament couldn't propose legislation only Mussolini, no formal votes just shouts of agreement• Electorate reduced to exclude most of the working class• No cabinet style government• Free elections stopped • January 1939 Parliament abolished itself, but senate remained with 148 non PNF senators• Fascist Grand Council was formalised in the constitution as the most important legal body in the state - but didn't have real power, wasn't consulted on major policy
121
Why did Mussolinl work with the conservative elites in Italy?
He was willing to work with them (the army an civil service) so successfully cement power by gaining the support of already powerful institutions BUT completely overturned the judicial system
122
What was Mussolini's relationship with the army like?
• It was allowed to run independently but they did give their loyalty to him•He was minster of war, but secretaries (usually generals/admirals) ran armed forces• Promoted lots of senior generals to status of field marshal • Pro fascist attitudes in the army resulted in better career advancement
123
How did Mussolini prevent the civil service from rebelling against him?
• Most kept their jobs on Mussolini's appointment eg Ministry of Corporations all senior civil servants had been there since 1916• Membership of the PNF did correlated to likelihood of promotion, membership increasing from 15% in 1927 after this realisation• Mussolini made it clear that any resistance to his policy would be crushed
124
What happened to the Italian judiciary system under Mussolini?
• Conducted a purge of undesirable elements - judges who did not support fascism or too independent from the government• Impartiality of the court was lost• Imprisonment without trial became common with Mussolini occasionally getting involved in verdicts/sentences of those that did go to trial
125
What happened to local government under Mussolini's governance?
• Placed in the hands of the conservative elites and career civil servants (appointed by Mussolini)• Local self governing bodies abolished,mayors and town councils replaced by officials from Romes• The traditional 'prefect' role within each province remained, appointed by Mussolini - involved organising police, suppressing anti-fascist movements and censoring local press • Local council run by podesta who were appointed by the prefects
126
Why did Mussolini's actions surrounding local government help to secure him greater power?
• Removed democracy• Prefects and podesta owed positions to Mussolini and thus allowed him to expand his power/influence throughout Italy
127
Why did Mussolini want to reduce the power of the PNF?
So his personal dictatorship was secure and not at threat from those within his party who did not see him as extreme enough
128
How did Mussolini reduced the power of the PNF?
• The 1925 purges under Roberto Farinacci, who was then replaced by Augusto Turati)• Held final party conference in 1925, shouting down dissenting voices and reducing the event from 3 days to a few hours • By 1929, 50-60,000 members of the PNF had been removed and another 110,000 left voluntarily • Another party purge saw 120,000 removed in the 1930s• Those who replaced the purged members were replaced by 800,000 new members with no ambition but just wanted membership for benefits
129
Why was the PNF not cohesive in its opposition to Mussolini?
Factions within the group wall wanted different things• Squads wanted continuance of violence• Ex-socialists wanted industry reorganisation• Nationalists desired changed to post war peace settlement• Conservatives helped for restoration of law and orderAll groups wanted Mussolini's support
130
How did Mussolini prevent a leadership challenge?
• By promotion second rate officials and removing threat of careerist fascists• Italo Balbo sent to occupy a post in Lybia• Dino Grandi sent to be Italiam ambassador to Britain - prestigious but practically powerless
131
Describe the few powers that the PNF did have?
• Able to transform Italians in obedient, disciplined fascists and there was a rivalry between the party and central government• 1927 - Transferred the OND from government control to the to the Party BUT 1929 saw ONB given to the Ministry of Education
132
Why did Mussolini want to work with the church?
• Catholicism was the main religion in Italy• Both Mussolini and new Pope Pius XI were concerned with the threat of communism
133
Name the agreement signed between the church and Mussolini on 11th February 1929?
The Lateran Pacts
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What did the church gain from the Lateran Pacts
• The state recognised the Pope's control of the Vatican city and that it was independent from the rest of Rome• Financial compensation of £30 million• The state would pay off clerical salaries• No divorce without the consent of the church• Religious education of a catholic nature was compulsory in state schools
135
What did the state gain from the Lateran Pacts?
• Pope recognised the Italian state, its possession of Rome and of old papal states• The Clergy could not belong to any political party
136
What did Mussolini gain from the Lateran Pacts?
He appeared to have resolved a conflict that had existed since 1871
137
How did the church and Mussolini continue to antagonise each other after 1929?
• Catholic Action - the independent youth organisation was allowed to remain, had grown from 250,000 to 388,000 members by 1939• Radio Vatican broadcasting alternate news and information to that of state controlled media• 'Non Abbiamo Bisogno' - condemned fascism for stealing children from Christ and having them worship the state• The mass genocide carried out in Abyssinia went against the teaching of the words of the bible• Pope was openly critical of the Anti Semitic decrees passed by Mussolini
138
How did good relations continue between the church and Mussolini after 1929?
• Abyssinian invasino was initially supported by the church (due to prospects of expanding religion and monetary opportunities)• February 1932: Mussolini and the Pope confirmed mutual views of societal and gender values and foreign policy towards the Soviet Union and communism
139
What were Mussolini's aims for his economic policy?
• Securing himself in power - increase control/prestige• Transforming Italy into a strong military power • Improve the overall economic situation to make Italy appear stronger
140
What was the lesser aim of Mussolini's foreign policy?
Improve the lives and living standards of the people of Italy
141
What was Mussolini's key economic priority in the early years?
To get the powerful industrial elite on his side
142
What economic measures in the early years of power did Mussolini introduce that improved his control in Italy?
1925 - The Vidoni Pact outlawed trade unions and said fascist syndicates were the only body that could represent Italian workers. Made industrialist happy as workers couldn't strike.
143
What evidence is there that the economy in Italy improved in the early years of Mussolini's rule?
• By 1924/25 the economy was running a budget surplus • Exports of cars, textiles and agricultural products doubled between 1922 and 1925• Government debt fell from 74.8% to 50.6% of GDP between 1922 and 1925
144
How did the early economic policies improve the lives of the Italian people?
• The minister of finance De'Stefani focused on reducing government spending and reducing inflation• Exports doubling meant workers kept jobs and businesses kept good income
145
When was the 'Battle for Lira'?
Started August 1926, revalued December 1927
146
What did the battle for lira involve?
• The Lira had sunk to value 150 to the British pound• December 1927 the lira was fixed at 92.46 to the pound, 19 to the dollar
147
How did the revaluation of the lira benefit Mussolini's control and prestige?
• Purely for propaganda • Designed to make the Italian economy appear strong• Demonstrated for the first time Mussolini was more concerned about prestige than improving people's lives
148
What were the effects of the revaluation of the lira?
• Unemployment trebled between 1926 and 1928• Crippled Italian exports as Italian products were nearly twice as expensive as other foreign goods
149
Describe the purpose of The Corporate State
It intended to solve the social/class conflict within the workplace
150
What 3 laws/actions created The Corporate State?
• April 1926 Rocco Law• July 1926 Establishment of the Ministry of Corporations• 1927 Charter of Labour
151
What did each law or action do to create The Corporate State?
• Rocco Law - allowed (fascist) syndicates to represent workers• Ministry of Corporations set up to be a mixed union of workers and employers to negotiate economic policies to suit both groups • The Charter of Labour guaranteed workers' rights in employment, social insurance and welfare
152
How did The Corporate State improve Mussolini's control and prestige?
• The system was propaganda - made him look like he had come up with a new economic system. Also favoured industrials who therefore continued to support Mussolini• All plans had to be approved Central Corporative Committee which Mussolini headed
153
What were the weaknesses of the Corporate State?
• Corruption and mock factories occurred• Wasn't equal, workers simply not represented • The system was large, ineffective and expensive bureaucracy that never achieved any of the state's aims
154
How did The Corporate State help workers?
It didn't. Apart from the introduction of sick pay and paid national holidays introduced in 1938 the workers gained nothing
155
Did The Corporate State help the economy?
Partially. meant damaging industrial disputes were generally avoided and combined with state control the effects of the depression weren't too bad
156
What was the Italian economy like during the Great Depression?
Not too bad, policies were quite successful in the earlier years so the impact on Italy wasn's as dramatic as on other nations
157
How did Mussolini's policies during the depression help his prestige and control in Italy?
The relatively good control of the economic situation meant that Mussolini was seen to be running Italy well
158
What economic policies were passed during the Depression?
• Large public work schemes such as road/house building kept employment levels stable• The IRI (Istituto di Ricostruzione) bought up shares in banking and industry to prevent bankruptcy. Govt. owned larger % of industry than any other country apart from the USSR• Welfare spending went from 6.9% to 20.6% between 1930 and 1940, putting a huge strain on government finances• The IMI (Instituto Mobilare Italiano) ensured major banks did not collapse after loaning out milions to businesses
159
How did the government try to generate autarky in Italy from 1934 onwards?
• Agricultural products such as cereals and wool were stockpiled to keep supply and prices stable • Government spending on autarkic measures doubled from 30 billion to 60 billion lire between 1934 and 1938
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What is evidence of the failure to achieve autarky in Italy?
• Lat 1930s Italy produced 1.8 million tonnes of iron ore annually which was less than 1/10 of what Germany was producing at the same time• Goods that were produced at home could have been bought abroad for cheaper
161
Why was the battle of the births linked with the Italian economy?
• started 1927, wanted to increase the population from 40 to 60 million in order to strengthen Italy militarily and economically stronger • Financial incentive of married men with 6+ children not having to pay tax introduced
162
What happened with the battle of the births?
Marriage rates stagnated, birth rate in late 1930s was 102 births per 1000 people compared to that of 147 to 1000 in 1911
163
What was the battle for grain part of?
The attempts to create autarky
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What did the government do in the battle for grain?
Invested in educating farmers of new techniques and providing fertilisers
165
Give evidence of the battle for grain being a success
• Northern/Central Italy's wheat production increased by 50% between 1914-1938• Imports of grain reduced
166
Give evidence of the battle for the grain being a failure
• South stopped growing olives and fruit and cattle farming, greatly damaging these industries and exports• By late 1930s, families were paying around 400 lire extra in food costs compared to in the 1920s
167
Describe the ruralisation policy introduced in May 1927
The attempt by the government to try to keep rural population, rural traditions as well as increase birth rate (battle for births).
168
Was ruralisation effective?
No - only 5% of the 475 million hectares of land that was reclaimed was used improved and used by farmers but draining southern marshes decreased malaria by 50%
169
What happened to GDP between 1922 and 1938?
It rose at an average of 1.9% a year (which is good as it shows economic improvement), compared to 2.8% between 1903-1911 (which shows that growth slowed under the fascists)
170
Give evidence of the Italian economy being effective during the war
• Protectionist policies and low taxes stimulated f=growth in the North• The deficit fell from 75% to 50% in 1932
171
Give evidence of the Italian economy being ineffective during the war
• Never put more than 25% of GDP towards was production compared to Germany's 64%• Italy was dependant on Germany for fuel and could only import 50% when its needs were significantly higher• Steel production decreased from 2.3 million tonnes to 1.7 million• Rations only allowed for 1000 calories in 1941 • The Soviet Union industry was 900% bigger than Italy's by 1939
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Why did Mussolini desire to have a strong foreign policy?
• Weak foreign policy contributed to collapse of Liberal Italy (e.g Mutilated victory)• Wanted to establish Italy as a 'great power', furthing his ides of nationalism
173
How could Mussolini's choices over foreign policy be described?
• Actions were often erratic and opportunistic• Used it to maximise his prestige and popularity than achieve material gains for Italy
174
What were the key aims of Mussolini's foreign policy
• 'to make Italy great, respected and feared' • Stand up for Italy's territorial claims, revising ToV settlements/overturn mutilated victory• Expand Italian imperialism in other parts of Africa besides Lybia• Assert greater power in the Mediterranean which was dominated by Britain• Gain the Balkans as an Italian sphere of influence • Create 'spacio vitale' for a more militant, aggressive race
175
What was Mussolini's approach to foreign policy in each decade he was in power?
• 1920s : cautious, compromises with Britain and the LoN• Early/Mid 1930s: fears around more militant Germany, sided with Britain/France• Mid/Late 1930s: became more aggressive, conflict with Britain/LoN and greater relationship between Hitler and Mussolini• 1940s: WW2, the desire for strong policy was greater than actual capabilities
176
What were tensions like between Greece and Italy before Mussolini rose to power?
Sour since 1912 due to Italy claiming the Dodecanese Islands
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Describe the events of the relations between Greece and Italy in 1923
• 27th August - Italian General Enrico Tellini and 4 of his staff were assassinated in Greece, had been working to set up a peace settlement/establishing Greek-Albanian boundary• Mussolini blamed Greek government for financing/carrying out assassination. Demanded a full apology and 50 million lire or the Italiam army would invade Corfu • August 31st - Italy bombarded Corfu without warning and occupied island
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How were the events of Corfu a success for Mussolini/Italy?
• Actions celebrated by nationalist and many withing elite elements of Italian politics incl. head of navy• Got the 50 million lire it demanded• Domestically showed Mussolini to be a dynamic ruler who stood up for Italy's national pride. Helped to cement his power due to contrast to liberal government
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How were the events of Corfu a failure for Mussolini/Italy?
• LoN demanded Mussolini end the occupation of Corfu, decision was also backed by Britain• Mussolini had little choice but to comply with the LoN . 27th September withdrew• Mussolini's decisions were shaped by the reality of Italy's power - head of the navy said that they wouldn't survive 48 hours if Britain acted• Didn't get full apology from Greek government• Internationally Mussolini face opposition from the league and had to accept the power exerted by Britain and France
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What happened in January 1924?
Yugoslavia recognised the Italian-speaking city of Fiume as being part of Italy
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How was Fiume a success for Italy/Mussolini?
• Had historical significance of d'Annunzio's occupation of the city, seen to be very significant for nationalism in Italy• Showed Mussolini as able to achieve what the liberal government had not
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How was Fiume a failure for Italy/Mussolini?
• Was mainly symbolic, Yugoslavia now had Split as a port• Italy recognised Yugoslavian rule of Susak in exchange for Fiume•No material gains for Italy
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How did Mussolini treat Yugoslavia from after Fiume?
• Funded ethnic minorities such as the Croats who opposed the government• In 1934 Croatian terrorists - funded and training on bases provided by Italian fascist - assassinated the Yugoslavian king• Yugoslavia did not antagonise Italy but also refused to be intimidated into subservience
184
How did Mussolini get involved in Albania?
• 1924 - Italian sponsored local chieftain, Ahmed Zog took power on border of Albania and Yugoslavia• Fascists continued to support Zog with money, encouraged Italian companies to invest in Albania and sent Italian officers to advise the Albanian army• By 1926 Albania was little more than a satellite state to Italy
185
How did Mussolini advance Italian influence in Lybia?
• Continues 'pacification of Lybia' begun by Liberals• Used brutal measure of poison gas, mass executions and use of concentration camps • 1/3 of the population were killed or starved to death including 40,000 in concentration camps• Put down Lybian rebellion in 1932
186
What helped to shaped Italian relations with Britain, France and Germany?
The contrast between the desires of Mussolini's foreign policy and the reality of Italy's military and diplomatic power
187
What happened with the Locarno pact?
• Saw Germany join the • Mussolini tried, unsuccessfully, link in negotiations around the Austrian border with Italy • Portrayed involvement as success to Italian people as being part of a prestigious conference
188
What issues saw unity/agreement between Italy and Britain?
• Historically had good relations• Mussolini was well liked by Churchill and foreign minister Austen Chamberlin• Revaluation of the Lira was dependant on funding from Britain - so Mussolini had to be diplomatic
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What issues saw disagreement between Italy and Britain?
• Mediterranean was dominated by Britain and would not concede any power • Mussolini tried to undermine British power by supporting pro Italian groups in Malta• Italy unable to stand up to Britain re. Corfu
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Overall what were Italian British relations like between 1922 and 1935?
• Mainly good• Dominated by Britain and Italy having to comply due to political and socio-economic reasons• Tension over the Mediterranean meant that in the surface they had a good relation but underneath it was tenser
191
What were the several areas of tensions between Italy and France?
• Mussolini saw France as a major competitor in Africa and the Mediterranean• France controlled Tunisia which had a high Italian speaking population, the French were suspicious of Mussolini • Mussolini unsuccessfully tried to look into an anti-french alliance with German, Hungary and Spain • The majority of antifascist exiles from Italy lived in France, so OVRA were spying in France
192
Where was there an agreement between the French and Italians?
They helped to create the Locarno Pact together
193
Where were there disagreements between Germany and Italy?
• Mussolini had little respect for Weimar Germany, said it was run by socialist and pacifists• Mussolini attempted to create the four power (Italy, Germany, France, Britain) pact but failed• Mussolini mobilised four divisions in 1934 when Hitler first attempted the Anschluss, seen to stop union• Mussolini was worried Hitler coming to power and the Anschluss could have threatened Italian power in the Balkans • Personal insults were thrown between the two - Mussolini called Hiter a 'horrible sexual degenerate'
194
Why did Hitler not entirely shun Mussolini?
In the early years, he was interested in building relations with another fascist nation
195
What was the Stressa Front?
• An alliance between Italy France and Britain • They declared their desire for peace and continuing commitment to the League of Nations
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How did the Stressa Front affect Mussolini’s foreign policy?
• Mussolini interpreted the agreement as France and Britain allowing for Italy’s colonial aims in Africa• Meant that the invasion of Abyssinia was a turning point in Italy’s foreign policy
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When did Mussolini plan and carry out the invasion of Abyssinia?
• Planned the invasion from 1932 • Carries it out in 1935
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Name some of the reasons for the invasion of Abyssinia
• Helped the economy • Would show the dynamism of racism, bring about the transformation Italy into a nation of more warlike people• Achieve autarky, Abyssinia would provide raw materials and more area for agriculture. It would also create an export market for Italy• Boost cult of il Duce and add prestige to dictatorship. Helps to make Italy a great power • Distract from poor domestic policy (corporate state, battles for births and grain)• Part of Italy’s history Destiny (Roman empire) • Abyssinia lacked means to fight a modern war and Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland were conventions places from which to attack
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What were the 4 key events that led up to the Abyssinian invasion?
• 1929: soldier began to occupy disputed border areas between Italian Somaliland and Abyssinia• 1930 : Italy built a fort at the Walsall oasis (well inside Abyssinian territory)• December 1934: skirmish between Italian and Abyssinian troops, 30 Italians and 107 Abyssinians killed. • Mussolini demanded full apology and heavy compensation while Abyssinia wanted a league of nation investigation
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What happened during the invasion of Abyssinia?
• October 1935: 400,000 men deployed to Abyssinia• Border towns like Adwa quickly seized but progressed slowed • One month in head of army De Bono was replaced with Marshall Badolglio• Used aerial mass bombings, murdered prisoners of war and illegal chemical warfare • 500,000 Abyssinians estimated to have died
201
When was Abyssinia officially controlled by Italy?
5th May 1936
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How was the Abyssinian invasion a success for Musolini?
• An estimated 20 mil Italians listened to Mussolini's radio broadcast on the 9th of May 1936 that proclaimed Italy had started its fascist empire, fulfilling image of the new Caesar • The Suez Canal remained open• Italian people, royal family all supported invasion • The Hoare-Laval Pact Dec 1935: secret agreement between foreign ministers of France, UK and Italy would have handed 2/3 of Abyssinia to Mussolini. appeared that Italy was now being taken more seriously• 18th Dec 1935: Royal family launched the 'gold for Patricia' campaign, queen melted down her wedding ring, women got steel ring to be 'married to the nation'
203
How was the Abyssinian invasion a failure for Musolini?
• Aims of autarky based on new oil reserves and raw material were never met• Cost of supplying the 250,000 troops against guerrilla fighters was considerable • Only 2% of Italian trade went to Abyssinia• Lire devalued by 40% and the budget deficit rose from 2.6 billion to 16 billion
204
What did the Abyssinian invasion do in terms of foreign relations
• Highlighted weakness of the LoN and encouraged Hitler's foreign policy aims• Began to split Italy's relations with France and the UK
205
What happened in July 1936
Mussolini committed Italian troops to help Franco in the Spanish Civil War
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What were the positives of getting involved in the Spanish Civil War?
• The establishment of another fascist state withe Franco, supported by 50,000 Italian troops, forced the collapse of the Republican resistance in Spain in 1939• Generated stronger ties between Italy and Germany
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Name the negative consequences of getting involved with the Spanish Civil War
•3,266 killed, 11,000 wounded• Cost 14 billion lire, resulting in increased taxes and further economic dependency on Germany• No territorial gains• Was not popular with the people who didn't see any benefit from it• Army was significantly weaker in 1939 after engaging in conflict - highlighted with Italian defeat to antifascist volunteers at the battle of Guadalajara • Relations with Britain and France who supported the Republican forces deteriorated
208
Why did Mussolini begin to form closer Italian-German relations after 1936?
• Eden, the new British foreign minster, disliked Mussolini• Hoare-Loval Pact say British attitudes become more anti Mussolini• Italian ships pretending to be Spanish sunk neutral vessels in the Mediterranean • Summer 1938 Italian bombing raid of a Spanish port sunk 11 British ships
209
What actions demonstrated closer ties between Italy and Germany?
• November 1937 - Anti- Comintern Pact signed along side Japan• December 1938 - Mussolini withdrew of the LoN • End to the Stressa front
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Was the relationship between Italy and Germany equal?
No • Hitler conducted the Anchluss without consulting Mussolini• At the Munich Conference portrayed to be a peacemaker but he had to work with Germany to exert authority
211
What happened to foreign policy between 1938 and 1939?
• November 1938 - told Parliament to demand the annexation of Nice, Corsica and Tunis from France • Invaded Albania in April 1939 to restore economy and Mussolini's image - but easy as it was already a satellite state• Pact of Steel in May 1939 - committed Italy to aid Germany if it went to war. signed due to Mussolini's belief that Italy needed Germany's help for Med. foreign pol.
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What did Ribbentrop (Germany foreign) tell Ciano (Italian foreign minister)? Did this hold true?
• Ciano said Italy wouldn't be ready for war before 1943• Ribbentrop said that Germany wouldn't start a war before then • 11 August 1939 saw Germany tell Italy it was going to invade Poland
213
What was the affect of Italian-German relations on Mussolini's domestic policy
The Anti-Semitic decrees and the 'Reform of Customs'
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What did the anti-Semitic decrees state?
Jewish people were forbidden from • Marrying a non Jewish person• Holding public office jobs• Owning more than 50 hectares of land• Running a business of more than 100 employees
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What were the consequences of the anti-Semitic decrees?
Over the following 3 years • 6,000 Jewish people left• Foreign Jewish people were deported
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Why did Mussolini implement the anti-Semitic decrees?
• Believed harsher policy towards Jewish people would create more militaristic nation• Unify Italy over an 'external and internal enemy'• To create an idea of racial superiority of Italian people
217
What were the reform to customs?
An ideological campaign aimed at radicalising Italian society
218
Name the reformed customs
• Civil servants forced to wear uniforms• Army adopted the goose step, because it look more imposing•Hand shaking forbidden and the introduction of a straight armed 'Roman Salute'
219
What issues did Mussolini's foreign policy cause domestically in Italy?
• The anchluss made many Italians fearful• 1935 - 39, increased military spending accounted fro 80% of the growing defecit
220
What domestic issues was Mussolini facing prior to 1939 that was affecting his foreign policy?
• Reform of customs/anti-Semitic decrees failed to gain support of the church, business and judiciary• Seen as a sign of weakness and subordination to Germany
221
What economic issues was Mussolini facing prior to 1939 that was affecting his foreign policy?
• Increasingly reliant on Germany• Attempts to achieve autarky means that consumer good were becoming more expensive
222
Why did the prospect of Italian neutrality in WW2 cause an issue for Mussolini?
• Fascism had linked militarism and nationalism with its image so being neutral would make Italy appear weak• If Germany won, It was unlikely to be kind to any ally that did not contribute to the war effort• However Ciano the foreign minster told Mussolini that they should not engage in a costly conflict
223
What did Mussolini do 26th August 1939?
Presented Hitler with a costly list of what the Italians needed for war, which amounted to 170 million tonnes of goods
224
How did Hitler respond to Mussolini's list of goods?
Understood that Italy could not get involved in a major conflict and released it from its obligations under the Pact of Steel
225
When did Italy join WW2?
June 10th 1940
226
Describe the failures of the Italian military in North Africa
• Retaliation attack from the British in Egypt in January 1941 saw 30,000 British troops defeat 250,000 Italian ones • May 1941 - lost Eritrea, Somalia and Abyssinia, 380,000 troops taken prisoner• Germany had to come help Italian troops ending the concept of a 'parallel war'• Battle El Alamein saw start of Italian retreat• By May 1943 the Axis forces surrendered in north Africa
227
What were the reasons for the failures of the Italian military in North Africa?
• Tactics confusing and inadequate, no consistent strategy for attacking key British positions• Allied bases of Malta, Gibraltar and Alexandria never under sustained attack • Italian planes bombed own ships July 1940 • British air attacks saw loss of half of Italian navy fleet at the Battle of Taranto Nov 1940• German navy had to help
228
Describe the failures of the Italian military in Greece
28th November 1940 • Assumed that Greece had 30,000 troops so attacked with 60,000 men• Greece had 300,000 troops • Date was bad with poor weather conditions - some uniforms disintegrated in the rain • Air force and navy were not coordinating on attack• Greece counter attack took 1/4 of Albania• German army came in 6 months later and defeated the Greeks in a few weeks
229
What four reasons can be seen to explain the Italian military defeats of WW2
• Military unpreparedness• Inadequate military leadership• Mussolini's inadequate leadership• Economic weakness
230
Evidence of military unpreparedness contributing to Italy's failure in WW2
• Army was small and outdated, fewer than 800,000 soldier ready to fight• Italy was only prepared for a short war - M hoped it would be over by Sept 1940• Only had 1000 effective planes of inferior quality to the British and German planes• Only 1500 armoured cars and light tanks • The US could make more aircraft in a week than Italy could in a year
231
Evidence of inadequate military leadership contributing to Italy's failure in WW2
• Navy adopted defensive strategy to not risk new battleships against the British fleet• Language problems between the officer class and peasant conscripts which led to low morale demonstrated by no of Italian PoW, unwilling to die for country
232
Evidence of Mussolini's weak leadership contributing to Italy's failure in WW2
As minster of war, Minister of the Navy and Minister of the Air Force Mussolini made all strategic decisions and often did not consult military experts. he also promoted officer due to obedience/powers of flatter rather than merit
233
Evidence of economic weakness contributing to Italy's failure in WW2
• Autarky not been achieves• Food production fell with rations at 1000 calories a da• Steel production went down 20% 1940-42 • Coal and iron ore had to be imported from German occupied territories and Germany grew reluctant to give them resources as they both began to do badly in the war
234
Why was there growing unrest in Italy by 1943?
• Rationing• Food + clothing shortages• Military issue - Allied Bombings and dfeats, 200,000 dead at Stalingrad• Propaganda undermined, facade of Mussolini as new Caeser fell as well as infallibility• Fear of subservience to Germany
235
What three groups became active in opposing Mussolini?
• Workers• Anti-fascist groups • Conservative elites
236
How did workers oppose Mussolini in the 1940s?
• March 1943 100,000 went on strike in Turin that spread to Milan • Organised by communists• Government gave into demands and gave workers greater pay
237
How did anti-fascist groups oppose Mussolini 1940s?
• Illegal communist newspaper L'Unita reappered in 1942• 1400 political arrests • Communist, socialist and Catholics all came together in secret to oppose Mussolini Although not powerful it shows that Mussolinis power was dwindling
238
Who in the conservative elite opposed Mussolini in the 1940s? Why where they apprehensive about doing so?
• The Vatican, military leaders, industrialists and police all considered ways to remove Mussolini but would then have to deal with Hitler and Germany• The invasion of Italy in September 1943 forced their hand
239
Describe the invasion of Italy
• 13th May 1943: Axis troops in North Africa surrendered to allied forces• 9th July : British, US and commonwealth troops landed in Sicily. Occupied within a week.19th July: Mussolini asked Hitler to move troops from the Soviet Union to Mediterranean to protect Italy from invasion. Idea rejected. Allied bombing or Rome left 1500 dead. • 17th August: Allied controlled Sicily• 3rd September: Allied land on mainland Italy
240
How was Mussolini removed from power?
• Early 1943 leading Fascist Dino Grandi talked with the king about removing Mussolini• The Vatican and king had opened up talks with the allies • 16th July: a deputation of fascists met Mussolini and got him to call s grand council. Grandi spent next 8 days getting support to remove Mussolini (also decided to bring 2 grenades to the meeting)• The meeting was called on July 24th, Mussolini unaware of meeting nature talked for 2 hours. After 9 hours of the meeting Grandi's motion to remove Mussolini was passed 19 to 7• At 5 next day King told Mussolini he was being replaced by Marshall Badoglio. Mussolini tried to leave but was placed in ambulance and taken to prison
241
What happened during the 45 day Mussolini was imprisoned
• Peace demonstrations took place • Negotiations between the allies and Badoglio's government took place• But Germans took control of Rome
242
How did Mussolini escape?
He was broken out of prison by German commandos
243
What did Mussolini do 15th September 1943?
• Established the german sponsored fascist state, the Italian Social Republic (also known as Salo Republic)
244
What was the basis of the Salo Republic's power?
German arms
245
Descrobe the power of the Salo Republic
• Lacked any real power• Rejected by the church and industrial elites
246
What was the Salo Republic able to create?
A brutal militia of between 50,000 and 140,000 men
247
What was going on in the South to oppose the Salo Republic?
• King formed the Kingdom of the South• Had no powers and was essentially ran by the allies• Conservative elites ran gov on local level to keep nation running
248
What did the King do after the occupation of Rome?
• Widened government to include anti-fascist parties • Antifascist Bonomi took over from General Badoglio
249
What happened with the army in the Kingdom of the South?
• Tried to conscript 100,000 men but anger at king and government caused resistance• 50,000 forced to join and fought the anti-fascist was of liberation in the North which lead to post war division in Italy
250
What had happened to the Salo Republic by 1944?
• Significantly weak due to Germany losing the war and unwilling to provide to the Republic
251
When was Mussolini's last speech and how did people react to it?
16th September 1944He was ill but the speech caused a standing ovation and enormous crowds
252
Wen did the allies reach the North of Italy?
April 1945
253
How did Mussolini die?
• Tried to escape into neutral Switzerland on the 27th of April but convoy stopped nad he was arrested• Him and his mistresses, Claretta Petacci, were shot on the 28th of April and hung upside down in Milan
254
What happened to Italy at the end of the war?
• Economy, infrastructure, lacked clean food and water• Widened North and South divide• Voted to become a Republic but north republican/south pro monarchy• Constituent Assembly saw election of Christian Democrats with 207/556 seats
