General cards Flashcards
What did the unification of Italy do to the political system of the nation?
• Created a constitution that guranteed equality before the law, rights of free assembly and a free press• Established a constitutional monarchy with the king head of state - able to appoint and dismiss ministers/senators. Usually controlled foreign policy • A bicameral legislature - Senate and Chamber of Deputies
How did the king and prime minister interact?
King - head of state, able to appoint and dismiss ministers/senators. Usually controlled foreign policy, the face in a crisisPrime Minister - head of government, ran the day-to-day. Needed support of government to keep power
What issues did the unification bring for the people?
• Significant differences between the unified states - language, culture and politics• In 1861 between 2.5-10% of Italians spoke standard Italian• Not everyone supported unification
What political weaknesses developed in Italy after unification?
• Small franchise - only 2% of the country could vote, people felt alienated• Party system was weak, led to reliance on trasformismo and instability of the governments formed
What were the key groups in Italian politics? Name their key interests
• Liberals - desired uniformity/order. For the educated middle classes• Radicals/Republicans - called for change to the Italian political system. Abolition of monarchy power• Socialists - aimed to further working class rights (universal suffrage, women’s rights, 8hr working day)• Catholics - catholicism, withdrew from political life. Pope did not acknowledge Italy as a state til 1929• Nationalists - aggressive, expansionist foreign policy. create a create Italian empire
What industrial issues did Italy experience in the early 20th century?
• Industrial growth limited - only in Northern Italy. In 1914 55% of industrial income generated in Milan, Genoa and Turin• Lack of key resources such as iron, steel, coal meant a need to import them• Labour force large but unskilled
What positive things happened for the Italian economy in the early 20th century?
• Between 1901 - 11: exports increased at a rate of 4.5% a year and the number of workers involved in production increased by 2 million • Workers conditions and wage increased
What happened in regards to agriculture in Italy?
• In the north subsidence farming ended sue to more effective manufacturing methods BUT this contributed to social divisions grew due to insatiability of work and more political agitation• In the south deforestation, disease, earthquakes in Calabria (1905) and the eruption of Vesuvius (1906) and Etna (1910) and a tidal wave in 1908 all damaged crops. Southern hatred of the government grew
What was the effect of poverty on the Italian people?
• Typhus, rickets and cholera were much more widespread in Italy than other European nations• Tuberculosis and malaria killed people frequently even going into the mid 1930s • Disease and illness significantly worsened by mas migration leading to cramped living conditions • Illiteracy rates were high - 80% in the south and 42% in the north
Name the one successful policy introduced by Liberal government
Universal manhood suffrage was introduced in 1912
Give evidence of unsuccessful policies introduced by the Liberal government between 1900 -1913
• Between 1901 -13 200,000 Italians left Southern Italy each year due to extreme poverty• 1910/11 25,000 peope in Naples died of cholera w/half of the population in this area illiterate• 1911 - half of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers were employed in northern provinces of Lombardy, Liguria and Piedmont
What were the 6 issues that Giolitti’s government faced between 1911-1914?
• The ANI - nationalists• The PSI - socialist• Catholics• Libyan war• Extension of the franchise• Economic weaknesses
How did the ANI cause Giolitti’s government problems?
• By compromising with the PSI, the Liberal government lost the support of the ANI and increasingly posed a threat to both parties• Took credit for the Libyan war, claiming they forced the govt.’s hand • They grew in power between 1910 and, greater organisation under Corradini• Had a number of educated middle class supporters who wanted to undermine the socialist and bring about a new dynamic Italy
How did the PSI cause Giolitti’s government problems?
• Giolitti sacrificed relations with the church in order to sustain support from the PSI so couldn’t solve Roman question•A faction within called the Maximilists believed in violence and undermined the ties between the Liberals and PSI
How did the catholic party cause Giolitti’s government issues?
• Encouraged the Invasion of Libya die to economic investment in the country • Didn’t resolve the Roman question due to aim to keep PSI support and did not give the pope any concessions
What happened with the Libyan War?
• Invasion in the 29th September 1911• Gained Control on October 8th
Why did the Libyan war backfire on Giolitti?
• Had been in hope to absorb the nationalists but the party took credit for the invasion • PSI refused to work with Giolitti after that due to their anti-interventionist/anti military stance and that the money could have been invested in Italy• Also led to a call for the extension of the franchise
Why did the franchise extend to working class men?
• Libyan war resulting in an argument that men could serve but not vote • 700,000 troops and naval officers and all men over 30 got the vote
Why did the franchise extension cause an issue for Giolitti?
• 70% of the electorate were no illiterate increasing number who could be bribed/corrupted and had a lack of knowledge of politics • Men who fought in the war more likely to be nationalistic • In the 1913 election liberal deputies lost 71 seats and trasformismo no longer worked and Giolitti stepped down in 1914
What economic weaknesses did Italy face under Giolitti?
• 200,000 people left south Italy a year due to poverty• 1911 - Genoa, Turin and Milan accounted for 55% of industrial output whilst the south as a whole only contributed 29% • Internal mass migration, poverty and disease created problems for the government and they could not resolve them
What initially happened in Italy at the start of WW1?
• Italy had been part of the triple alliance since 1882• Italy did not join the war straight away as Austria had not told Italy of its plan to declare war on Serbia before• Nationalist called for Italy to honour commitments to the alliance • Many believed that the war would create strain on the economy and that the population was uninterested
How did the declaration of neutrality at the start of the war affect Italian politics?
• Split the liberals sparking political crisis• Worries Germany won they’d not be sympathetic to a neutral ally
Why did Italy get involved in the war and switch sides in the conflict?
• Salandra wanted means to implement authoritarian restrictive laws and also secure political power with a military win• Britain, France and Russia offered the irrdente lands to Italy if they won which was better than what was offered by the Germans and Austrians
What was signed on the 26th April 1915?
The Treaty of London - committed Italy to support the triple entente
What were The political consequences of the treaty of London?
• PSI, Catholic party and Pope all opposed it• Prefects (local govt. reps) reported there was no appetite for war• Giolitti and 300 deputies opposed it, Salandra resigned, Giolitti asked to form a ministry but King threatened to abdicate if Treaty of London not honoured so Salandra reinstated on the 16th May
When did Italy declare war on Austria?
25th May 1915
Name economic issues that occurred during WW1
• Italy was behind Austria on all war industries - for every 2 machine guns an Italian battalion had Austria had the Austrians had 12• Resentment and unrest amongst industrial workers occurred due to 25% wage fall and most workers did not support the war • Government raised taxes which was unpopular and created social divisions, and north-south divisions increased too • All economic growth at the time was only located in war industries thus collapsed when peacetime was reached
What economic benefits did the war bring?
• Fiat established as Europe’s top truck industry produced 25,000 in 1918• Aeroplane industry produces 6,500 planes in 1918• Produced 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery which was more than the British
How did the war create political tensions?
• Impact of 1916 Trentine offensive on public morale and army led to criticism of Salandra and forced to resign• Failures at Caparetto resulted in the suicide of a senator Leopaldo Franchetti and several resignations• Neutralist that made up the majority of parliament blamed for war failures, calls to be put on trial for treason • Only nations whose opposition continued to opposed during the war• PSI opposition worsened left-right divide, also blamed by Mussolini who called them a greater threat than the Austrians for their ‘not support nor sabotage’ tactic
How did the war create some political unity?
• Salandra replacement Orlando focused more on boosting morale, promise land reform to conscripting peasants, created welfare to support soldiers and families • General Diaz improved military tactics, casualty rates fell considerably from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918
How did the war increase social tensions?
• Of 5 million conscripts the majority were southern peasants and treated badly by commanders• A lack of discipline in army punished by severe punishments, 400 death sentences passed on soldiers•Captured soldier abandoned by army - suffered 1,000 calories a day, 100,000 dying of hunger-related illnesses
What happened at the Battle of Caporetto?
• October 1917 - Austrian army attacked the Italian front line and Italian army dissolved into chaos and retreat • Many soldiers fled down mountain side, many weaponless and reports that choas (looting, violence) amonsgt army who thought the war was over• 200,000 Italians lost contact with regiment• 10,000 killed, 30,000 wounded, 400,000 simply vanished
How did the Italians see some success during the war?
• October 1918 Italian troops lanches an offensive across the Piave and at the Battle of Vittorio Vento split the army in two• Austria signed an armistice on November 4th 1918
What problems did the war leave Italy with
• Went from having 2.9 billion lire in debt pre-war to 23 billion after• 650,00 casulties• Divisions between those who’d supported the war and those who hadn’t • Returning soldiers and meeting commitments made to conscripts
What happened at the Paris Peace Conference?
• Orlando argued that Italy was due the land promised in the Treaty of London plus Fiume• Other nations did not see Italy as a great power or contributing enough to the war so rejected this• Orlando walked out of the conference and gained very little from the Treaty of Versailles - got Trent, Triste and Northern Dalmatia
What was the effect of the Paris peace conference in Italy?
• Worsened disquiet and anger with 650,000 death seen to be for nothing • Became known as the mutilated victory • Showed the weakness if the liberal government and lack of great power status
Why did the occupation of Fiume occur?
Anger at the mutilated victory
What happened during the occupation of Fiume
• Fascist leader d’Aunnzio took 2,000 men consisting of ex-soldier, futurists, students and patriots to seized Fiume on 12th Sept 1919• Occupied until Christmas Day 1920
What was Mussolini’s background before he was the leader of the Fascist Party?
• Grew up socialist • Jailed for socialist activities and was editor of socialist newspaper in 1910• Expelled from socialist party for supporting WW1
Describe the Fascist vision in 1919
• Italy led by the ex-servicemen of WW1 - trincerocrazia created by the military bond help to govern• A politically, economically and socially united country• Nationalism was key
Describe the Fascist views of labour in 1919
• 8hr working day• Minimum wage with workers representatives • Establish same confidence in labour unions as given to industry executives
Describe the Fascist views of taxation/govt. ownership in 1919
• Strong progressive tax on capital• Revision of military contracts and seizure of 85% of their profits• Armermanets factories nationalised• Reorganisation of the railways and transport sector
What did the Fascists want to do with military affairs in 1919?
• Create short-service national militia• Peaceful but competitive foreign policy
What were the opinions of the church, monarch and social elites in 1919?
• Anti-clerical & wanted to confiscate all their property • Abolition of bishoprics • Create a republic• Remove all noble titles
What did Fascist produce in May 1920?
The New Programme
What was the Fascist’s vision under the New Programme?
• A politically, economically and socially united country• Nationalism was key
Describe the New Programme’s labour policy
• Anti-socialist, with fascist unions to replace current once • No mention of minimum wage
Describe the New Programme’s taxation policy
• No mention of nationalisation. but nationalised industries to be privatised• Proportional tax system
Describe the New Programme’s foreign policy
• Compulsory military service• Raise Italy to great power status• Provide training for future soldiers through education
Describe the New Programme’s attitudes towards the church, monarchy and elites
No attacks on any of these groups, their property or power
When and how was the fascist party formed?
• 23rd March 1919 • Mussolini called together representatives of round 20 ex-servicemen leagues to form the Fasci di Combattimento/Fasci
Why did the squadristi form?
• Early fascist predominately made up of arditi - crack troop commandoes formed following Caparetto, wore black shirts associated with the fascist movement• Formed themselves into small, military units called squadristi
How did WW1 contributes to the growth of the Fascist party between 1919-1922?
• The war created a strong culture of violence amongst the returning soldiers• They begun to view the socialists as an internal threat within Italy • The Mutilated Victory highlighted the weakness of the liberal government, turned military against them• Alignment with the militaristic views of the PNF who promised a better solution to the post war problems
What evidence is there of weakness of the Liberal state between 1919 and September 1922?
• After squadristi violence on 15th April 1919, no fascists arrested or attempts to close down their actions• February 1920 - production of wheat fell 38 million quintals compared to pre-war levels of 52 million, industrial production also falling 15%• The Beinnio Rosso strikes lasting a month in 1920• Spring 1921 - police looked other way as fascists crushed socialist power in Emilia & Tuscany• May 1921 - election resulting in no one party controlling parliament , trasformismo no longer worked • By July 1922 violence weakened PM Facta with PNF de facto government in many of Italy’s provinces
How did the weakness of the liberal state contribute to the rise of the Facists?
• They appeared to be inept at tackling the issues faced by Italy - socialism, economic problems, rebuilding after the war• Pushed the public towards more extreme parties - PNF, PSI
What actions did fascists take in response to the rise of socialism in Italy between 1919 and September 1922?
• 15th April 1919 - 200-300 fascists burnt down ‘Avanti!’ newspaper, three socialists and a fascist killed• First 5 months of 1921 saw 200 people killed in clashes between socialists and fascists• Took control of Emilia and Tuscany in Spring 1921• May 1921 elections - saw 100 socialist sympathisers killed • Attacked areas across Italy with socialist controlled local councils in 1922• By September 1922 - squads controlled areas around Rome, were ready to seize capital
How did the fear of socialism contribute to the rise of the fascist party?
• Highlighted weakness of Liberals to stop rise of socialism e.g 1919 got greatest share of votes at 32%, 1920 they controlled 26/69 provinces in Italy, won 123 seats in May 1921 elections• Wealthy in Italy (conservative elites, wealthy industrialist) happy to see socialism stopped - wanted to keep wealth and power• Seen to be removing socialist threat, added to the fascist propaganda
How did Mussolini’s actions and popularity contribute to the fascist party’s success between 1919 and September 1922?
• Encouraged the formation of more squadristi across Italy• Introduced the New Programme after realising the first one was too socialist• Propaganda - ‘the fascists save ital from soclaism’ • August 1921 Established self as sole leader of movement, elevate fascism above a group of thugs but a political movement• Stopped violence to gain support of the middle classes • 1922 Dual policy - said he would use democratic parliamentary meant to gain power, but still encouraged the violence of squads to the fascist party
Give evidence for the rise in popularity of the Fascists between 1919 and 1922
• 1919 November elections - got less than 5,000 votes and no seats• 1921 May elections - won 35 seats • Grown to 320,000 members by July 1922
How did the March on Rome start?
• Ras (squadristi leaders) wanted to take over the capital but Mussolini wanted to be appointed Prime Minster democratically due to it giving him a stronger position• 16th October 1922 - A plan to have 300,000 fascists march on Rome was created, mainly to blackmail politicians• 24th October - Mussolini made a speech to squadristi in Naples asserting that the PNF must be given power of face the seizing of Rome
What happned on 27th October 1922?
Starting in Milan squadristi took over government offices, railway stations and police stations
How did politicians and officials respond to the March on Rome?
• 2 am 28th Oct - King ready to declare state of emergency, have Mussolini arrested• 9 am - King decides not to sign the declaration of emergency• 29th October - King asked Mussolini to become prime minister
How did various politicians’ actions contribute to Mussolini’s appointment?
• Facta - seen to be weak, king had no confidence in him, he resigned• Salandra - convinced king not to sign the emergency decree due to desire to become PM• Orlando - said he’d work with Mussolini in a fascist coalition if he could be PM• Giolitti - failure to stop socialism and fascism become popular (due to ineffective governance)Many liberals were too concerned with fighting off own party members and underestimated Mussolini so called for his appointment
How did the King contribute to Mussolini’s appointment to power?
• Didn’t sign emergency decree - lack of confidence in Facta, fear military wouldn’t stop them fascist and hint from Mussolini of being replaced by the Duke of Aosta (his cousin) • Asked Mussolini to become the Prime Minister
Why did Mussolini decide to call a general election in 1924?
To provide the PNF with a parliamentary mandate
What was the problem with the calling of an election?
The system of proportional representation made it hard to secure a majority
Why did Mussolini pass the Acerbo Law?
To make it easier to secure a parliamentary majority for himself
What did the Acerbo Law state?
That 2/3 of parliamentary seats would go to the party that wom more than 25% of the vote
What happened with the Acerbo Law?
• PCI and PSI opposed it • Liberal elites (incl. Giolitti), king and vatican supported it• Fascist demonstrations threatening took place in Tuscany and Umbria if the bill didn’t pass, Mussolini wore a black shirt to parliament the next day• Law was passed and an election called for the 6th if April
Describe the events of the 1924 election
• Tainted by violence and intimidation - Blackshirts destroyed hundred of opposition buildings and clubs, murdered PSI candidate Antoni Piccinini • Several prominant liberals (Orlando and Salandra incl.) ran on the fascist’s ‘National List’
What was the result of the 1924 election?
• Turn out 64%• Mussolini gained 66.3% of the vote, Acerbo law was redundant• fascists went from 35 deputies to 275
What were the other reason (beside fascist violence) did Mussolini win the 1924 election?
• Weakness of the opposition, unable to unite against the fascists• electoral support of prominent liberals• Belief that Mussolini could provide strong leadership Italy needed
When did Giacomo Matteotti give his speech to parliament? What was is about?
• 30 May 1924 • PCI (communist) leader spoke out about corruption and violence during election, claimed fascist only won due to violence• Also claimed to have a large file of fascist party corruption that he was about to make public
What happened to Matteotti after he gave his speech?
• 10 June 1924: kidnapped as he walked towards parliament• 16th August 1924: found in a shallow grave outside Rome. Stabbed with a carpenter’s file
How was Mussolini tied with Matteotti’s murder?
People witnessed the kidnapping• Number plate of car he was dragged to belonged to Mussolini’s press secretary, Cesare Rossi• Leader of the kidnapping was Amerigo Dumini who was head of the Italian terror squad/secret police/cheka (arrested 12th June)
From where did Mussolini face pressure after Matteotti’s murder?
• Established elites - concerned about PM being associated with murder• PSI, PCI and antifacsit parties - called for his dismissal/fascists to be overthrown• The ras - saw it to be the start of a violent fascist revolution, with Mussolini stalling
What happened on the 13th June 1924?
100 antifascists left parliament to establish their own on the Aventine Hill outside Rome
What were the consequences of the creation of the Aventine Secession?
• Deputites couldnt agree on what to do, did not threaten Mussolini at all• Dstroyed hope of parliament winning a vote to dismiss Mussolini• Gave king excuse to do nothing
Why did the King, The Pope, the army and business/political elites continue to support Mussolini?
Believed him/PNF were the best option with a strong right wing anti-communist government
How did Mussolini sustain confidence in his government until December 1924?
• Appointed positions of interior and justice minster Luigi Ferderzinu and Alfredo Rocco • November 1924 - satisfied army demands. PNF to cease all forms of violence, removal of members who ignored this order, officers of the MVSN (army) had to swear an oath of loyalty to King and Mussolini
What happened in December 1924?
• 29th - Salandra declared opposition to Mussolini, threatening to leave PNF/Liberal coalition• 31st - Squad leaders demanded Mussolini defend a fascist revolution or they would remove him as the leader of the PNF
What happened on the 3rd of January 1925?
• Mussolini announced to parliament he was establishing a personal fascist dictatorship (took responsibilty for violence but blamed opposition for break down in democracy)
What did Mussolini do throughout 1925 to establish a more secure dictatorship?
• 12th Jan - Formed a new cabinet without most of the liberals • February - Farinicci appointed PNF deputy to purge part radicals. Party membership went up from 600,000 to 938,000 diluting the power of the ras and squadristi • October - The Palazzo Viodini Pact established leaving only fascist unions in place to represent workers. Fascist Grand Council forced the ras to disband their squads• December - role of PM became Head of Government and the Duce of Fascism and parliament no longer able to remove the PM through a vote
How did the arrest of Tito Zaniboni (PSU deputy) help Mussolini establish a more secure dictatorship?
• August 1925 - allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini • PSU immediately banned, introduced new press law with all journalism now state approved and passed a law giving the government power to sack any employee whose actions/words went against PNF
Name the actions taken by Mussolini in 1926 to further enforce his rule?
• January - granted ability to rule by decree • October - another assassination attempt. All political parties except PNF banned, Aventine deputies permanently excluded from parliament, Antonio Gramsci arrested. Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State set up to prosecute anti-fascist
What did most opposition leaders do after 1926?
Estimated 10,000 fled to exile in France and elsewhere with their citizenship withdrawn and property confiscated
How did Mussolini finally gain control over all of Italy?
• The elected government abolishes, with mayors replaced by podesta who were appointed by local fascist prefects • Prefects (directly accountable to Mussolini) held most powerful regional position not the ras• PNF secretary said that any dispute between the ras and prefects that the prefects would come first
What had happened by the end of 1926
Mussolini had established a personal dictatorship where neither his party or parliament could pose a threat to him
What were Mussolini’s aims in regards to his domestic policy?
• Control the population• Create a loyal nation of fascists• To be popular
Name 7 ways Mussolini aimed to fulfil the aims of his domestic policy
• Indoctrination of education and the youth• Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro (OND)• Press control and censorship• Propaganda• Creating the cult of il Duce• Creating a fascist culture• Making a terror state
How did Mussolini indoctrinate the boys of Italy?
• April 1926 the Opera Nazionale Balilla (ONB) was created for the ‘physical and moral benefit’ of boys aged 8-18 based mainly around physical fitness• Membership compulsory 6-11, but in 1939 it was made compulsory for all ages • Prior to 1939 membership provided access to jobs, scholarships, not being a part made it hard to enrol in further education and barred from future civil service employment
How did Mussolini indoctrinate the girls of Italy?
• Figlie della Lapa (6-8), Piccole Italiane (8-13) and Giovane Italiane (14-17) were the girls equivalent of the ONB, focused around physical fitness too
In what other ways were youth indoctrinated in fascist Italy?
• 1929 Ministry of National Education created and all youth organisations placed under its control (only Catholic Action allowed to remain)• All teacher had to be part of the PNF by 1933
What was the point of indoctrinating children in fascist Italy?
• Wanted to make Italy a great nation - turn boys into fascist soldiers and girls into good fascist wives • Centralising the education system and extracurricular activities made this easier
Evidence of the success of Mussolini’s youth policy
• 1937 prior to compulsory membership youth organisations had 7 million members • Northern children seen to enjoy activities more • Boys tended to enjoy participation in activities
Evidence of the failure of Mussolini’s youth policy
• Motivation to participate not necessarily out of loyalty to the PNF - preferable to learning in class, social occassions, easier to get future employment • Girls disliked groups due to being too focused on being mothers, 1937 survey said they were more interested in the boys’ activities • In the south, as children left school earlier to become agriculture workers, it was harder to indoctrinate
What was the OND?
• The National Afterwork Organisation• Set up 1925 after the closure of socialist organisations • Provided recreation and welfare
What benefits did the OND provide?
• Bars, billiard halls, cycling groups, libraries and radios, discounts on rail tickets • Each section had a clubhouse where activties were provided. Plays, films and concerts provided• Acted as a welfare organisation at times relief was needed • Subsidised holidays and excursions
What was odd about the OND?
• It was politically neutral
What evidence is there of the OND being a successful piece of domestic policy?
• 4 million members • Argument from Mussolini that through creating l better lives for workers that people were more likely to tolerate/accept fascism and not challenge it
What evidence is there of the OND being an unsuccessful piece of domestic policy?
• Political neutrality means that members could just join for benefits and not necessarily creating a loyal nation of fascists
