Detailed cards Flashcards
1
Q
What was the first form of opposition to Fascism?
A
Matteotti (1924)
2
Q
Who were the Rosselli brothers?
A
-Carlo and Nello Rosselli. -Came from a wealthy Tuscan family.-After a period in the army and uni, both became lecturers. -Became increasingly horrified by Fascist violence.
3
Q
Who was the more politically radical Rosselli brother?
A
-Carlo.-joined the PSI and after 1922 participated in anti-Fascist organisations & spread anti-Fascist propaganda.
4
Q
Why was Carlo Rosselli arrested in December 1926?
A
Helped opponents escape to exile but was arrested.Sentenced to 5 years imprisonment on Lipari island.
5
Q
When did Carlo escape?
A
July 1929. Then fled to paris.
6
Q
When was Nello arrested?
A
Briefly arrested in 1927 & remained under police surveillance.
7
Q
What was the anti-Fascist group set up by Carlo?
A
-Justice and Liberty (GL)-set up in Paris
8
Q
What did GL do?
A
-they publicised conditions in Italy-smuggled propaganda leaflets into Italy-helped secret activity in Italy
9
Q
What else did Carlo do?
A
-When the Italian govt sent troops to fight Franco in SCW, he helped organise 30k anti-Fascist Italians to join an anti-Fascist crusade in Spain.-Made radio broadcasts to Italy c. their struggle, claiming “Today in Spain; tomorrow in Italy”.
10
Q
What was the slogan broadcast by Carlo’s radio channel?
A
“Today in Spain; tomorrow in Italy”
11
Q
What did the GL help inflict the defeat on?
A
-BM’s troops at Guadalajara in March 1937.-Carlo publicised this humiliation & helped provoke BM’s revenge.
12
Q
What happened to the Rosselli brothers in June 1937?
A
They were both murdered by French fascists, acting on Foreign Minister Ciano’s orders.
13
Q
Anti-Fascist concentration
A
-Established in Paris 1927-Mainly Socialists, some Liberals-Tried to overcome previous divisions; difficult -Concentrated on informing Europeans of evils of Fascism via conferences and journals-1934: dissolved itself, as it was losing support to the more radical GL, & Communist organisations.
14
Q
Work in exile
A
-After 1924 many major politicians left Italy-1000s of exiles publicised horrors of Fascism abroad, smuggled anti-Fascist lit into Italy, and planned for the overthrow of Fascism-From 1936 there were 3k anti-Fascist volunteers fighting in Spain-Italian Garibaldi Legion defeated Italian Fascist troops at Guadalajara, March 1937
15
Q
What were the exiles called?
A
Fuorusciti
16
Q
The Communist Party
A
-1926: most leaders arrested, but local party cells, & newspaper “Unita” survived illegally- 2k to 8k members-Some success in N in infiltrating factories & TUs to foment strikes and demos-Helped by Soviet money but Comintern policy (1928-34) of non-collaboration w/ other anti-F groups limited its impact-1930s: Depression & new popular front policy meant it attracted more support-1943 onwards: major role in resistance movement in N. Italy
17
Q
Who was Bassanesi?
A
-GL member-flew over Milan in July 1930 dropping 100k leaflets urging resistance-Was a major publicity coup for anti-Fascism
18
Q
Who was De Bosis?
A
-taught himself to fly-In 1931 he dropped 400k leaflets over Rome telling people they should unite with the monarchy against F.
19
Q
When did De Bosis drop 400k leaflets over Rome?
A
3rd Oct 1931
20
Q
GL (Justice and Liberty)
A
-1929 founded by CR in Paris-Tried to galvanise Italians into anti-F action-Established underground network in Italy, but frequently smashed.-After the murder of the Rossellis, GL declined; then revived from 1943, during liberation struggle.
21
Q
The Church
A
-Despite the Concordat agreement there was later by the Catholic church of: (i) Fascist pressure on CA (1931) (ii) racist decrees (1938)-CA organisations remained as potential rivals to F.
22
Q
The Fascist Party
A
-F remained a diverse movement, & there was always simmering criticism from some, especially Radicals, e.g. the Concordat -1943: majority of Grand Council voted to remove BM from office
23
Q
The King
A
-Generally supportive; but privately expressed criticism of actions he saw as threatening his position, and various policies, e.g. racist decrees-July 1934: dismissed BM
24
Q
Ethnic minorities
A
-Periodic protests-including bomb attacks and murders of policemen-at imposition of Italian language and culture on German and Slav minorities in Alto Adige & Venezia Giulia
25
Armed uprising
-1943 to 1945: Growing resistance movement against German occupation of the N-Communist guerrillas shot BM, 1945
26
Assassination attempts
-Various anarchist isolated actions; 4 attempts on BM's life in 1925 (Rome) & 1926 (Bologna: suspected of being staged to justify 1926 repression)-1931: bombs in Turin, Genoa and Bologna
27
Non-conformity
-Hard to assess but various forms: (i) refusal to make Fascist salute (ii) refusal to wear Fascist uniform (iii) anti-F jokes (iv) verbal insults (v) Late 30s non-compliance w/ Reform of Customs
28
Propaganda
-underground printing of anti-F propaganda-Secret Press had some success, especially in the N, but periodically disrupted by the police.-Distribution of anti-F leaflets, w/ instructions to pass on to at least 6 others-Anti-F slogans on walls
29
Armed uprisings
-1943 to 1945: Growing resistance movement against German occupation of the N-Communist guerrillas shot BM, 1945
30
Open expression of criticism
-Growing public criticism of F violence, culminating in the murder of Matteotti; increasingly repressed after 1925-Parliamentary Aventine Secession 1924-25-Some critical journals survived till 1926; then suppressed; less direct opposition via cultural journals-Intellectual criticism persisted throughout period, especially from Croce, e.g. Manifesto of Anti-F Intellectuals, 1925-Elements in elite periodically expressed criticism
31
Strikes & demos
-declined 1924-25, but periodic illegal strikes:(a) Turin March 1943 major strike, quickly gained concessions(b) Bologna 1930 & 1931 protests against closing soup kitchens, & having to pay for medical injections(c) Trieste 1933 protests about lack of food(d) Forli 1935 protests demanding public works-1933: numerous spontaneous demos in N cities w/ slogan "We want bread & jobs"
32
Why was there so little opposition in Italy?
REASON 1- strength of the govtREASON 2- attitudes of ordinary peopleREASON 3- practical problems
33
REASON 1- strength of govt
-strong repressive machinery-popular policies-propaganda-popularity of the leader
34
REASON 2- attitudes of ordinary people
-mass apathy-careerism-reluctance to break law-support for the govt-fear of the govt
35
REASON 3- practical reasons
-hard to organise meetings-hard to spread ideas
36
BM becomes PM
Oct 1922
37
Italy bombards Corfu
Aug 1923
38
Italy gains the disputed port of Fiume
Jan 1924
39
Italy signs the Locarno Treaties, guaranteeing Germany's western borders
Oct 1925
40
Italy brings Albania under Italian control as a protectorate
1926
41
BM encourages Croatian separatists who want to break away from the new Yugoslav state
1927
42
BM encourages Arab nationalists challenging the French and British Empires
1928
43
BM encourages Macedonian separatists in Yugoslavia
1929
44
Italian colony of Libya finally subdued after a 13 year campaign
1932
45
Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
Jan 1933
46
BM proposes 4-Power Pact
July 1933
47
Italy sends troops to protect Austria from the threat of Nazi takeover
July 1934
48
Italy attend Stresa Conference to discuss measures against Germany's rearmament
April 1935
49
Italy invades Abyssinia
Oct 1935
50
Italy conquers Abyssinia
May 1936
51
Italy intervenes, alongside Germany, to help conservative General Franco against the Left in SCW.
July 1936
52
SCW
July 1936-1939
53
Italy joins the Axis agreement with Germany
Oct 1936
54
Italy joins the Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany & Japan, directed at the USSR
Nov 1937
55
Italy withdraws from the LoN
Dec 1937
56
BM attends the Munich Conference which prevents war over Nazi claims on Czechoslovakia
Sept 1938
57
Italy invades Albania
April 1939
58
Italy & Germany sign the Pact of Steel military alliance
May 1939
59
Italy stays out of WW2
Sept 1939
60
Italy declares war on Britain & France
June 1940
61
Italy invades Egypt & Greece
Sept-Oct 1940
62
Italy declares war on the USSR
June 1941
63
Italy declares war on the USA
Dec 1941
64
Italy suffers major losses in Africa
1942
65
Southern Italy invaded by Allies
July 1943
66
BM overthrown
July 1943
67
Germans take control of N Italy
July 1943
68
BM becomes the puppet leader of the German satellite Salo Republic in N Italy
July 1943
69
BM killed by Italian Communist guerrillas
April 1945
70
What position did Italy hold in Europe?
A secure one but unable to exert a great deal of influence, either militarily or diplomatically :(
71
How had the potential threat to her N frontiers been removed?
1) By the friendship w/ France2)the dismemberment of the Austro-Hungarian Empire3)she had no powerful enemies
72
Who were the dominant powers of Europe?
Britain and France
73
Why were they the dominant powers of Europe?
-they guaranteed the ToV settlement-their colonies dominated Africa-their fleets controlled the Med
74
Where was France consolidating her economic and political power?
E. & C. Europe, including the Balkans.
75
Why was it hard to change the European status quo?
-required the consent of Britain & France (the very countries that benefited from the current status quo)-in the absence of a strong Germany to counterbalance their influence, smaller powers had few means of extracting concessions.
76
What did this power balance mean for Italy?
Would have to move carefully
77
How did Italy learn this lesson?
In BM's first foray into European affairs- Corfu Crisis 1923
78
Since 1912, Albania had been independent of...
Turkey
79
What did the LoN do in 1921?
Entrusted the guardianship of Albania's independence to Italy.
80
What was the on-going dispute between Albania and Greece about?
the location of their common frontier.
81
When was the dispute put before the LoN?
1921
82
Name the institution the LoN referred the dispute to?
The Conference of the Ambassadors of Britain, France, Italy and Japan.
83
What did this institution decide?
To send a commission made up of Greeks, Albanians and Italians to the disputed region to settle the issue.
84
Who was appointed to lead the commission?
An Italian general, Enrico Tellini
85
When were Tellini and 4 of his staff assassinated?
17th August 1923
86
How did BM react to the assassination?
Even though there was evidence to suggest the murderers were Albanian, he used it as an opportunity to hold the Greek govt responsible and an ultimatum was sent to Athens.
87
Terms of the ultimatum
-The Greek govt must issue an official apology for the crime.-Members of the Greek gov should attend the victims' funerals.-The murderers should be apprehended within 5 days & automatically executed.-The Greek fleet must salute the Italian flag.-Payment of a 50M lire compensation
88
How long were the Greeks given to respond to the ultimatum?
-24 hours to accept the terms-5 days to pay the 50M lire
89
What did the French PM, Raymond Poincare, describe the terms as?
"extravagant-much worse than the ultimatum after Sarajevo"
90
Did the Greek govt accept the terms of the ultimatum?
accepted most of the terms bar automatically executing the murders. Also thought 50M lire was too steep- suggested amount should be set by the LoN.
91
How did BM retaliate?
Ordered the bombardment and occupation of Corfu.
92
What was the admiral he sent to oversee the occupation?
Admiral Emilio Solari
93
When did Italy bomb and occupy Corfu?
31st August 1933
94
Where did some of the bombs land?
On orphanages and refugee camps.
95
How many citizens were killed in the bombardment?
16
96
How many citizens were wounded in the bombardment?
30
97
International opinion with regard to Italy's actions was...
...divided.
98
What did many foreign powers think of BM's actions?
They were critical of BM's gunboat diplomacy and thought it ill-advised and impulsive.
99
Where was there some support for BM's actions?
British and French press.
100
What did The Observer applaud BM for?
his "virile direction of his country's affairs".
101
What did he tell the British press in Rome?
-That the British govt would've done the same if British officers had been murdered in Greece.-He wanted it known that he didn't want the matter referred to the LoN as he believed it to be out of their jurisdiction. -If it was referred then Italy would resign from the LoN.
102
How did the European powers react to the Corfu Crisis?
They, led by Britain and her Med fleet, demanded that BM withdraw.
103
Why was BM in a difficult position?
-His 1st international crisis he'd faced and if he failed to get his way (the 50M lire), it'd reflect badly on the F regime and public opinion might turn against him.
104
How did a British Diplomat sum up BM's precarious position?
"the whole Fascist fabric might collapse like a deck of cards"
105
What would happen if Fascism collapsed?
A return to political instability and encourage a reappearance of the threat of Communism.
106
Whose hands did the LoN fortunately (for BM) place the manner in?
The Ambassadors' Conference
107
What was the outcome of the Ambassadors' Conference?
- They largely supported the Italian case and stated that the indemnity had to be paid.- But BM never received a full apology from the Greek govt.- Italian troops withdrew from Corfu.
108
Define indemnity.
compensation
109
When did Italian forces withdraw from Corfu?
September 1933
110
Yes, the CC was a clear victory for BM...
-It appeared that this display of strength had allowed Italy's F regime to win its first international crisis: added further to his domestic popularity and international prestige abroad.-His policy of bombardment and occupation got him what he wanted: 50M lire indemnity.
111
No, the CC was not a clear victory for BM...
-It showed that although BM was able to bully smaller powers, he was unable to stand to the great powers, who demanded that he withdrew from Corfu.-This realisation annoyed BM but it made him aware of the necessity of good relations with Britain, at least in the short term.-BM v. fortunate that the British foreign sec, Austen Chamberlain, was an admirer of Fascism and was inclined to look tolerably on BM's actions.-BM never received an official apology from the Greek govt.
112
What did the crisis display for the first time?
The weakness of the LoN when faced by the aggression of a member state (NOT A GOOD OMEN FOR THE FUTURE)
113
The crisis indicated what about Fascist Italy's FP?
That its aims represented a threat to peace.
114
Who did BM finally agree with about the future of Fiume?
Yugoslavia
115
What was the deal called struck between the Yugoslavians and BM?
The Pact of Rome
116
What did that deal entail?
Fiume would pass to Italy and the Yugoslavians would retain the land around it.
117
What did the Greeks give way on?
the issue of the Dodecanese Islands
118
What happened in 1925?
The Dodecanese Islands formally became Italian.
119
Was it a success?
YES- BM's diplomatic success brought him great prestige and popularity- Fiume port was part of the irredenta. D'Annuzio had occupied it for 18Ms in 1919 and he provided blueprint for Fascism and instilled a sense of imperialism into the hearts of Italians. BM had to OUTDO him.
120
What did BM's success in Fiume persuade him to think?
That Yugoslavia could be pushed around.
121
Whose influence in Yugolsavia did BM resent?
French influence.
122
What was BM keen to demonstrate to the new state?
That Italy was the dominant power in the region; not France.
123
Yugoslavia was a new state- when was it formed?
1918
124
What did BM want to make clear to the Yugoslavs?
That he could make their life v. difficult if they tried to resist Italian influence.
125
What happened in 1924?
An Italian-sponsored chieftain, Ahmed Zog, managed to take power in Albania on Yugoslavia's S border.
126
What was the name of the Italian-sponsored chieftain?
Ahmed Zog
127
How did the Fascist govt help Zog?
-provided him with money-encouraged Italian companies to invest in the Albanian economy -employed Italian officers as advisers to the Albanian army
128
What was signed in 1926?
The Treaty of Friendship
129
What did that treaty signify?
That Albania was little more than a satellite state.
130
What emphasised Italy as a military threat to Yugoslavia?
When BM funded those ethnic minorities, notably the Croats, who wanted to break away from the Yugoslav state.
131
How did Yugoslavia respond to BM's funding?
By doing its best not to antagonise Fascist Italy but it also refused to be intimidated into subservience.
132
1930s
-throughout the 30s BM maintained his aggressive posture.-eventually occupied much of Yugoslavia during WW2 after it was defeated by Hitler.
133
When was Yugoslavia invaded by the Axis powers?
April 1941
134
What happened in 1943?
a Democratic Federal Yugoslavia was proclaimed by the Partisan resistance.
135
Why did BM want Albania?
Its ports would give him access to Adriatic Sea (strategically valuable) & the Balkans.
136
What role was BM keen to play in W Europe (where B&F's main interests lay) while he was meddling in the Balkans?
A moderate statesman
137
How did he cement this role?
-Italy remained in the LoN (the ostensible guarantor of international conflict) -signed the Lorcano Treaties-entered the Kellogg-Briand (1928) pact outlawing war.-Italy & Britain came to an agreement over the location of the border between their N. Africa colonial territories, Libya & Egypt.
138
What did BM really think of the pacts?
He had little interest in the details of such pacts & treaties, and rarely took the time to read them thoroughly.But he did see the advantages of participating in these diplomatic spectacles.
139
Why did BM get involved in the Lorcano Treaties?
-enjoyed being taken seriously as a European statesman.-hoped that apparent moderation would lead to some concessions from B&F-saw an opportunity to enhance his domestic prestige and power (MOST IMPORTANT FACTOR)
140
Who did BM originally send to represent Italy?
Dino Grandi
141
Why didn't BM originally attend the conference?
He wouldn't go as the other leaders refused to move it to Rome.
142
Why did BM eventually join the conference?
-Didn't want to miss out on benefiting from a diplomatic success.-Knew how useful it would be to boost his domestic prestige and distract from domestic problems.
143
How did BM dramatically arrive to the conference?
On a speedboat with a large band of blackshirts.
144
What was the Italian press coverage like surrounding the treaty?
-EXTENSIVE-Suggested that... (i) BM had been treated as an equal by the great powers' leaders. (ii) BM's presence & contributions had been crucial in reaching such momentous European agreements-Made a powerful impression on Italy
145
Was the assertion that BM's presence & contributions had been crucial correct?
-a GROSS EXAGGERATION-He only attended one session and didn't even't bother to read the final draft of the treaties.
146
How did journalists react to BM's arrival at Lorcano?
Refused to attend and waited outside the room to greet him w/ silent contempt as he emerged from the lobby.Popolo d'Italiana of course reported massive crowds
147
Why after Lorcano did BM himself never attend foreign conferences?
He didn't want to invite a similar rebuff (could sway Italian PO if they found out) so preferred to stay at home.
148
What agreements were reached at Lorcano?
It only reaffirmed Germany's frontiers that were agreed in TOV (1919). BUTThe treaties heralded a period of peace based on international cooperation.
149
What new feeling pervaded the political scene immediately after Lorcano?
optimism
150
What did people speak of?
"the spirit of Lorcano"
151
What opportunity did Lorcano create for BM?
To meet Austen Chamberlain, Britain's foreign sec, and to discuss their countries' outstanding differences. In fact, they got on & established a friendship.
152
What did BM and the other leaders believe?
That Lorcano increased the chances of a lasting peace in Europe.
153
Who met in April 1924?
The French Foreign Minister, Briand, and the US Secretary of State, Kellogg.
154
What did Briand suggest at this April 1924 meeting?
That their 2 countries should set an example to the rest of the world by openly outlawing war as a means of settling international disputes.
155
What was Kellogg against in the April 1924 meeting?
Was not in favour of such a limited bilateral agreement and suggested it should be extended to include as many nations as possible.
156
Who was Kellogg particularly keen to involve?
-Germany, who had only been in the LoN since 1926.-the non-LoN powers, the USA and the USSR
157
When was the Pact signed?
27th August 1928by the reps of 9 powers.
158
Were was the Pact signed?
Paris
159
Who was the Italian representative?
Count Manzoni
160
How many nations signed the agreement?
56
161
What happened 11 years after it was signed?
WW2
162
What do historians think of it?
Irrelevant and ineffective
163
Was BM keen for Italy to become involved?
Not at first
164
What did BM originally call it?
an "absurd proposal"
165
Like the LT, where did BM want the delegates to travel to?
Rome. They refused.
166
What did BM think of the pact?
-had no faith in it-no interest in adhering to its principles -BUT wasn't prepared to oppose it unilaterally so sent Manzoni to sign it-Thought it might get him some prestige.-It made no difference to his preparations for the future.
167
Why have some questioned the necessity of the pact?
It appeared to duplicate the undertakings made in the covenant of the LoN.
168
What were the weaknesses of the pact?
-did NOT provide a means of enforcing its principles-did NOT give any idea of the course of action to be taken against any nation that broke them
169
What is the KBP also known as?
The Pact of Paris
170
From the start the KBP...
-was not enthusiastically received-was never to make any meaningful contribution to future settlement of international disputes.
171
What happened to the KBP?
It still remains in effect.
172
What was BM posing as for the eyes of B&F?
A good neighbour
173
By the late 1920s what was he determined to do?
Revise the peace settlement
174
What would he need to do in order to achieve this?
A)FRIENDSB)STRONGER ARMED FORCES
175
When did he sign a friendship treat with Hungary (another revisionist state)?
1927 (FRIENDS)
176
Why did he fund RW groups in Germany in the late 1920s?
-hoped that a pro-Fascist govt might come to power there: even went as far as to train German pilots in Italy, a clear breach of the ToV. (FRIENDS)
177
What did BM tell the Italian parlt in 1927?
That he would create an air force "large enough to blot out the sun". (STRONGER ARMED FORCES)
178
What did he immediately do after signing the KBP outlawing war?
dismissed it in a speech to the Italian parlt
179
What was clear by the early 1930s?
-That the F regime was clearly ready to do more than meddle in Balkan affairs-& was now prepared to challenge the European status quo directly in pursuit of a "greater" Italy.
180
What would happen in the 1930s?
Italy would increasingly become more aggressive not only in the Balkans but in Europe and N. Africa too.
181
How have LW historians traditionally seen Fascist FP in the 1930s?
As a means by which the regime attempted to distract public attention from domestic failures.
182
What do the LW historians suggest about the nature of FP in the 1930s?
it became MORE aggressive & reckless as dissatisfaction intensified within Italy.
183
Has the original LW historians' opinion changed in recent years?
In recent years, historians have modified this view.
184
What do historians now think about FP in the 1930s?
BM did recognise that FP success would bolster his regime and that he did perhaps need new, dramatic successes, now that domestic policies such as the Corporate state were yielding poor results BUTHis aims had always been expansionist & aggressive, even if circumstances had caused him to disguise this.
185
Why had FP become more belligerent?
-as the result of the frustration of the limited gains won by the Italian diplomacy in the 1920s-BUT MAINLY due to the recognition that the Nazis' rise had transformed the European situation & opened the way for Italian ambitions.
186
What did BM realise in the 1920s?
That a strong, resurgent Germany, seeking revision of the ToV, would frighten B & F, and would make them more compliant to Italian demands.Indeed, neither of them would want Italy as an enemy and she would, thus, be able to play off the 2 camps against each other to their own advantage.
187
Who had BM funded in the late 1920s?
Probably the Nazis along with other RW groups in Germany. - thus on the surface he should be delighted with AH's accession to power in 1933. But early relations were strained.
188
Why was BM concerned about Hitler's accession?
1) He was a little apprehensive lest Germany be seen as the centre of F and he be overshadowed by Hitler.2) A more concrete concern was that this new German regime might take over Austria, thus creating a powerful "greater Germany" which would share an Alpine border with Italy.
189
What impact would the possibility of Anschluss have on Italy?
Italy would lose the security of the N. border guaranteed by victory over Austria-Hungary in 1918 and even be pressurised into ceding these German-speaking areas in NE Italy gained at the peace conference.
190
How did the Austrian govt react to the threat of Anschluss?
-The Austrian chancellor, Dollfuss, looked for outside support and visited Rome 3 times in 1933.
191
Why weren't the Austrian govt keen on Anschluss?
any union of the 2 countries would NOT be a merger, it'd effectively be the takeover of the weaker (A) by the stronger (G).
192
What did BM tell Dollfuss when he visited Rome 3 times in 1933?
Dollfuss was relieved to be told that he should suppress the Austrian Nazi party and if the Germans threatened to invade then Austrian independence would be protected by Italian arms.
193
What did BM encourage Dollfuss to do in 1934?
to set up a RW authoritarian regime which would be a) partly modeled on Italian Fascism. b) but would also be anti-Nazi
194
Dollfuss attempted to follow BM's instructions but was...
assassinated by Nazi sympathisers in July 1934.
195
How did BM react to D's murder?
was outraged and immediately dispatched 40k troops to the Austrian border to deter Germany from attempting an armed Anschluss (relations between the 2 F regimes off to an auspicious start).
196
What did BM call Hitler in 1933?
"an ideologue who talks more than he governs"
197
What did BM call Hitler on hearing D's assassination?
a "horrible sexual degenerate"
198
In the early days what did the 2 leaders think of each other?
BM: mixed feelings c. AHAH: was flattered when press made comparisons between him and BM and claimed that he was looking forward to meeting him.
199
What did AH have in his home?
A life sized bust of BM
200
What did AH once boast about what would happen once he was in power?
"Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy will be friends for tens and tens of years of at least until I die"
201
When Hitler came to power in 1933...
differences arose between the 2 men.
202
What were Italians according to NG racial theories?
"Med types" and thus inferior.
203
What did the original founder of the Nazis, Anton Dresder, suggest about BM?
That he was a Jew.
204
What were signed in March 1934?
The Rome Protocols (Austria, Hungary and Italy)
205
What were the Rome Protocols?
an agreement by which each would provide assistance to the others if needed. At the same time BM ave an undertaking to defend Austrian independence.
206
When did BM have to face the reality of NG's territorial ambitions?
July 1934 (4 months after the Rome Protocols)
207
When did the Austro-Hungarian Empire collapse?
1918
208
What banned Anschluss?
The ToV & ToSt German, since it might encourage the revival of a strong, militaristic Germany-----this is why France and the Little Entente were opposed to it.
209
What did Dollfuss do after his meeting with BM?
-dissolved parlt-banned communist & nazi parties claiming that "a Catholic country was better off w/o godless Reds & pagan Nazis"-then formed the Fatherland Front (in effect an Austrian F party)-in 1934, under BM's patronage, announced his intention of setting up a corporate state based on the Italian fashion.
210
How did the Austrian Nazis react to the fascistisation of their govt?
engaged in a campaign of terror and sabotage. It's thought that AH sent his own agent provocateur to help & encourage them.
211
What happened when Dollfuss issued a decree dissolving the Socialist council in Vienna?
The Socialists reacted by calling a general strike.
212
What did the Austrian army do the WC districts of Vienna?
Shelled them & engaged in street fighting. Things were clearly getting out of hand- was a chance that AH might exploit this chaos by using it as an excuse to annex Austria.
213
When did AH and BM meet for the first time?
June 1934 in the Villa Pisani, Stra.
214
After meeting AH, BM described AH's appearance as?
"like a plumber in a macintosh"
215
What did BM think of Mein Kampf?
boring and one "which I have never been able to read". AH spent most of the their first meeting quoting passages from his book.
216
What were BM and AH wearing when they first met?
BM:full military get upAH:civilian dressBM took offence at this. Foreign press reported that this reflected the picture of the powerful BM and insignificant AH.
217
What did the foreign press draw caricatures of with regard to BM and AH's first meeting?
BM towering over the insignificant AH (even though they were of similar height).
218
What did they discuss in this first meeting?
-spoke in broken German.-Austria and reached a broad measure of agreement as AH agreed to most of BM's demands.-AH said that he did not contemplate Anschluss- LIAR
219
What did BM fear when Dollfuss was assassinated?
That it was a prelude to a German occupation of Austria.
220
How did AH react to BM sending 4 divisions to defend Austria?
Was in no position to risk a confrontation with BM and the threat of invasion receded--- BM's virile reaction worked.
221
What did AH say about the D murder?
-Denied all knowledge of the planned putsch-claimed that if there had been German involvement it would've been the work of Ernst Rohm (murdered in the NoLN-June 1934- so couldn't answer for him).
222
After D's murder what was BM regarded as?
the guardian of Austrian independence.
223
Their common fear of NG caused Italy and France to?
Draw closer together.
224
It was the world's first...
...filmed assassination.
225
Who was King Alexander?
King of Yugoslavia.
226
When was he assassinated?
9th Oct 1934
227
Where was he assassinated?
Marseilles, France
228
Who was the assassin?
Petrus Klemens
229
Who was Petrus Klemens?
A Macedonian employed by the Croat secret service, Ustasi.
230
Who did Yugoslavia blame for the event?
1) Hungary for housing Ustasi and not keeping close enough tabs on them.2) France for not providing protection.
231
Who did BM side with out of spite?
Hungary
232
What did Dino Grandi boast?
That Italy would go to war if Hungary was attacked.
233
What was discovered?
That Italy had housed the Ustasi assassins, paid for weapons and provided training.
234
Who did Italy negotiate with the blame Hungary at the LoN?
France
235
Italy had...
...literally gotten away with murder.
236
What did Britain condone?
German expansion
237
Define condone
Allow something that is usually morally dubious.
238
What did the agreement permit?
Permitted NG to expand its navy to 35% of the size of the Royal Navy and have submarines. (contravenes the ToV)
239
What did the ToV reduce the German Navy to?
-35 ships-15k soldiers-NO submarines
240
For the Germans, the AGNA was...
...intended to mark the beginning of an Anglo-German alliance against France & the USSR
241
For the British, the AGNA was...
...to be the beginning of arms limitation agreements to limit German expansion.
242
Who did Britain not consult about the AGNA?
The other members of the Stresa Front (the cracks are beginning to show lol)
243
What did the French contend?
That Britain had no legal right to absolve Germany from adhering to the naval clauses of ToV.
244
When was the Pact signed?
On the 120th Anniversary of the Battle of Waterloo (salt in the wound)
245
Why conquer Libya?
-In Italy's sphere of influence.-To BM, a superior F people required living space and this was always going to be to the cost of Africa, the nearest colonial residence.
246
What did BM hope the conquest of Libya would yield?
1) hoped that millions of Italians would patriate the territory.2) predictions of wealth that would flow into Italy as a result.3) would also allow Italians to engage in a war they were capable of winning.4) "road test" the 2 new rising stars in their army command, Graziani and Badoglio. 5) it'd give the F state an empire to begin to justify their newfound status by 1933.
247
What was a key theme of F ideology?
The idea of living space for the expanding population.
248
Instead of the millions emigrants predicted by F propaganda, how many Italians patriated the territory?
50,000
249
Did the predictions about the wealth that would flow into Italy as a result of developing the colonial empire come to fruition?
-No-Were wildly unrealistic -The cost of running the colonies were always GREATER than any economic returns.
250
Did these realities have any impact on BM's policies & propaganda?
No. Throughout the 20s, his regime gave a high priority to the N. African empire.
251
Why did BM use the army in the "pacification" of the native population?
Because developing the agriculture and economy weren't enough.
252
When did this pacification occur?
Between 1928 and 1933.
253
Who was in overall command of the army?
De Bono
254
But who actually carried out the pacification?
the 2 rising stars, Badoglio and Graziani.Both of whom would later play prominent roles in all of BM's wars.
255
De Bono, Badoglio and Graziani all gained big reps in Libya despite what?
They didn't get on with each other and were obsessed with personal and petty rivalries.
256
How was the pacification carried out?
via brutal methods that nowadays would be described as "ethnic cleansing".
257
How much of the native population were expelled to concentration camps?
100k. Death rates were high.
258
What did Badoglio openly encourage his men to be like?
"firm" and "ferocious"
259
What did the army use when putting down a native rebellion in 1931?
poisonous gas
260
Why was the re-conquest of Libya over and the concentration camps closed in 1933?
BM was ready to move on to his next target, Abyssinia.
261
By the time the camps closed in Sept 1933, how many out of the 100k internees were dead?
40,000- near genocide
262
Who was captured and publicly executed by the Italians in 1931?
The Libyan rebel leader Mukhtar.
263
Some of the war crimes committed by Italians...
1) Bombing of civilians2) Killing unarmed kids, women and the elderly 3) rape and disembowelment of women4) Throwing prisoners out of aircraft to their death.5) Bombing tribal villages w/ mustard gas (contravened the LoN's covenant) beginning in 1930.
264
Who was the governor of Libya (1929-33)?
Badoglio
265
When did it occur?
July 1933
266
also called
the Quadripartite Agreement
267
Who was the agreement between?
-France-Britain-Germany-Italy
268
Where was it signed?
Rome
269
Which parlt did not ratify it?
France's parlt
270
Who called for the creation of the 4PP and why?
WHO: BMWHY: as a better means of insuring international security.
271
What was BM's goal?
To reduce the power of smaller states in the LoN in order to solve the issue of how sovereign powers could come together and operate in an orderly way.
272
What did the reps of F,B, I & G sign?
A diluted version of BM's proposal. The doc that was signed bore little resemblance to the initial proposal.
273
What was BM's chief motive in BM's instigating the 4PP?
The wish for closer Franco-Italian relations.
274
What did the 4PP reaffirm?
Each country's adherence to:1) the covenant of the LoN2) Locarno Treaties3) KBP '28
275
If BM's purpose of the pact was to calm Europe's nerves then he...
...achieved the opposite result.
276
Even though the 4PP had little significance, it...
is NOT completely devoid of merit. It was one of the factors contributing to the German-Polish Non-Aggression Pact (1934)
277
The exploitation of the balance of power appealed to?
Italy and Britain.
278
However, why did the pact face speculation among the French and the Germans?
London and Rome were close enough to mediate between Paris & Berlin. France was justifiably alarmed.
279
What has been argued?
That the 4PP could have safeguarded the European balance of power with the hope of balancing peace & security. HOWEVERAt that time, in Europe, depression was abundant and AH's rise to power makes this claim unlikely.
280
Who opposed the revision of the 4PP?
Poland (its reliance on France had been weakened) and the Little Entente states, as apparent in the French dilution of the pact in its final form. It's apparent that the 4PP had a NEGATIVE impact on French allies in C. & E. Europe.Italy was also a threat to France's influence in the Med/
281
What was an adequate reason to propose alternative power arrangements?
AH's rise to power.
282
What had started as an alternative to the LoN ended as?
A reassertion of devotion to that failing institution and a pleasurable ceremony.
283
What was Hitler willing to accept?
the gratuitous triumph of the LoN's death.
284
What happened to the 4PP?
It soon failed but Britain, in particular, did NOT easily throw away the 4PP idea.
285
What put the 4PP on hold?
AH withdrawing from the LoN in October 1933.
286
Until WW2 who made vain attempts to make the 4PP work at any cost?
Britain
287
What did the failure of the 4PP serving as a warning for?
Germany's continued withdrawal from diplomatic relations with B & F in the buildup to WW2.
288
What was it triggered by?
(ALL March 1935)-NG revealing the existence of the Luftwaffe, in breach of ToV.-NG increasing her army to 500k (way MORE than the 96k permitted by ToV).-NG introducing military conscription.
289
What did BM agree to in face of this challenge?
To meet B & F in Stresa to organise a response to the apparent German threat.
290
What was the SF?
Was an agreement between B, F & I that they would collaborate to prevent any further breaches in the treaties that might threaten peace.
291
What were the aims of the SF?
1) To reaffirm the Locarno treaties2) To declare that the independence of Austria would continue to "inspire their common policy".3) To resist any attempt by the Germans to revise the ToV.ERGO: NEUTRALISING THE GERMAN THREAT!!
292
Although BM certainly feared NG, he realised that...
...B&F had just as much, if not more reason to fear Hitler. (a rearmed & hostile Germany reminded the W. allies of WW1's horrors).
293
What did the SF indicate to him?
that the W allies were anxious to avoid allying with other states to seek the revision of ToV.
294
What did BM believe that B&F's wish to avoid a German-Italian rapprochement would make them do?
They might be more sympathetic towards Italian ambitions and more tolerant towards Italian adventures overseas. He saw this as an ideal chance to expand his colonial empire at minimal risk. Next target: Abyssinia
295
What did the SF provide BM with?
Added protection against an Anschluss.
296
Define rapprochement
(especially in international affairs) an establishment or resumption of harmonious relations.
297
What did BM think that him signing the SF would mean?
That B & F would not interfere in the Abyssinian Crisis.
298
What did BM cleverly make sure not to do?
To discuss his expansionist plans within the confines of the conference itself, as he knew there was a risk of the W dems issuing a veto over it.He also couldn't risk the SF being sidetracked from its main aims.
299
What various matters did BM lay out to be discussed?
1) the necessity of avoiding Anschluss was at the core of these talks2) he wanted to have a guarantee which would allow the Italian occupation of Abyssinia.
300
Why did BM want to avoid Anschluss?`
Told the B&F reps that he did not want Germany at the Brenner Pass (between I&A) and hoped that A would remain a buffer state.
301
Why did BM want a guarantee which would allow the Italian occupation of Abyssinia?
-wanted to vindicate the shame of the 1896's Adowa defeat, which was part of his electoral platform.
302
Although BM didn't speak explicitly of the Abyssinian invasion what did he make?
Some weighty allusions, offering in exchange for those N. African lands his support against NG.No one objected/ warned him not to BUT he didn't get the guarantee he wanted.
303
Why could the SF be seen as a failure?
-it had vague terms-was not clear how these terms should be upheld-ignored all references to G as B didn't want to antagonise AH, who used tactics that made B&F guess his next move.
304
What did Britain fail to realise?
Its advantage over Germany. The vague terms kept AH guessing at what B would do.
305
What was the SF according to historian Pat Buchanan?
the MOST important attempt ever made by Europe to stop AH before WW1.
306
What was another reason for SF failing?
that no one wanted invade Germany but a full scale invasion of Germany was necessary to cease its rearmament. B govt unwilling to as B public was strongly antiwar.
307
When did the cracks of the SF start to show?
The Anglo-German Naval Agreement (1935)
308
When did the SF completely collapse?
When Italy invaded Abyssinia
309
Why was BM feeling uneasy after the SF conference?
Because B&F didn't explicitly say Y/N to his plans to invade Abyssinia.
310
Why does the SF signify a volta for BM?
It's a volta from where he goes from being B&F's ally to being seduced by AH's virile ideals as B&F are unwilling to act decisively. That's why Martin Lamb calls BM "a lost ally of the democracies"
311
BM: lost ally of the democracies?`
US REVISIONISTS often blame B&F for driving/rejecting BM into the arms of AH rather than keeping him as a useful ally.OTHERS are less sympathetic, arguing that BM's aggression and manipulation gave B&F NO choice but to regard him w/ suspicion.
312
What were the socio-economic reasons for invasion?
1) To exploit the natural resources in Abyssinia. Some thought the country rich in oil.2) To win markets for Italian exploits.
313
What were the historic reasons for invasion?
1) To avenge the humiliation of BoAdowa when in 1896 the Abyssinians defeated and inflicted heavy losses on the Italian army.
314
When was the Battle of Adowa?
1896
315
What were the personal reasons for invasion?
1) To increase BM's prestige in Europe and prove to AH that Italy was a power to be reckoned with.2) To stir up patriotic fervour that would help guarantee BM the continuing support of the Italian people.3) To further consolidate BM's own position &, of course, add to his personal prestige.
316
What were the Fascist reasons for invasion?
1) The time was right. BM assumed that his membership of the SF would secure, if not the support, then the neutrality of F & B for his ambitions in Africa. He had also secretly informed AH that he intended to change his policy & abandon the SF & his Anglo- French allies & seek closer ties with Germany.2) To give to the world evidence of vitality of Italian Fascism.
317
What were the propaganda reasons for invasion?
1) To divert the attention of the Italian people from BM's unkept promises and the regime's mounting economic problems.
318
When did the Wal Wal incident occur?
Dec 1934
319
What was the Wal Wal incident?
A brief confrontation at the Wal Wal oasis in which 150 Abyssinians & 50 Italians were killed. Haile Selassie appealed international arbitration from the LoN. They agreed and set up an inquiry.
320
When had the Italians established a fort at Wal Wal?
In 1930, several miles inside the Abyssinian border.
321
Why did BM decide to reject LoN's mediation?
He claimed that Abyssinia was "a barbarous & uncivilised state whose conduct placed it outside the Covenant of the LoN"
322
BM promised Italian soldiers...
... "a war without tears".
323
What did the Wal Wal incident show?
That Italy was angling for an excuse to invade.
324
How many troops did the Italians mobilise?
400k
325
When did the invasion commence?
3rd October 1935
326
Who was put in charge of the Italian army?
De Bono (appointed CIC of all Italian forces in E.Africa in March 1935).
327
How well equipped were the Abyssinian opposition?
Not very- had spears & 1847 rifles.
328
Why did the war take so long?
The advance of the Italians were frustratingly slow & BM lost patience. In Dec 1935, BM sacked De Bono and replaced him w/ Badoglio.
329
What dilemmas did BM face?
1) MILITARY: how to win the war.2) DIPLOMATICALLY: how to cope with the threat of international action to force him to back down.
330
Why did the length of the conquest affect the international reaction?
A quick decisive victory might have enabled BM to avoid a major international reaction but the war had lasted 8M. This allowed time for opposition to grow and for the LoN to become involved.
331
How did Haile Selassie react?
He mounted a v. effective campaign to exploit international condemnation of Italian aggression. His emotional address to the LoN in July 1936 after he had been forced into exile, had a huge impact on PO around the world.
332
What were the actions of B & F mainly influenced by?
PO against BM's aggression.At govt level, there was a strong desire to get around the problem of Abyssinia and to rebuild the SF, but the PO made this v.difficult.
333
When did the Hoare-Laval Pact take place?
Dec 1935
334
What was the Hoare-Laval Pact?
British FSec, Hoare met with the French PM, Laval, for private talks in Paris. They agreed a pact aimed at tempting BM to call off his war in Ethiopia in return for a favourable territorial settlement.
335
How did the B & F public react to the H-L Pact?
there was a MASSIVE public reaction after the Daily Mail leaked the pact. Hoare resigned and took all the flak but he had actually acted on behalf of the govt.
336
Why did the H-L Pact fail?
There was a storm of public & political protest against the Pact's "appeasement" of BM.
337
Would the H-L Pact have ever worked?
No. BM would have NEVER accepted it because he was already fixed on military victory. Also Hoare was forced to resign and Laval lost power in 1936.
338
What was said about Abyssinia in the SF conference?
B & F gave warnings to BM about Abyssinia, but privately and in coded terms. BM assumed, WRONGLY, that there would not be strong international opposition to an invasion.
339
How did Italy invade Abyssinia?
The main invasion force, led by De Bono, attacked from Eritrea in the N, while General Graziani commanded smaller Italian forces on the S front.
340
How was BM finally able to win the war?
By the use of massive military force. In addition to the forces already stationed in E. Africa, Italy mobilised more than 600k troops with air support. BM also urged his generals to use BRUTAL METHODS, including poison gas.
341
Between Feb & April 1936...
The Italians won a series of battles on both the N & S fronts.
342
What was the "March of the Iron Will"
Badoglio's final assault. Was determined to get to the capital, Addis Ababa, before Graziani did.
343
When did the war end and Haile Selassie went into exile?
5th May 1936
344
When was King VE 3 proclaimed Emperor of Ethiopia?
9th May 1936
345
What was Abyssinia renamed as?
Africa Orientale Italiana (AOI)
346
Why had the victory been less than spectacular?
-It took longer than originally planned-It was only achieved at massive cost to the national budget-The fighting was not yet finished- wasn't until Feb 1937 that they had complete control as Graziani had to spend months pacifying the country & dealing with rebellions.
347
What happened in Italy in May 1936?
BM reached peak popularity. There were mass demos in favour of BM & against the "foreign elements" who opposed his actions. CC leaders also expressed their approval.
348
What did the Bishop of Cremona say about the A invasion?
"May Italy once again stand as a Christian model for the whole world".
349
How did BM expect B & F to react?
Expected a brief outburst of disappointment and then everything would go back to what it was. Instead the international crisis BM created went on for 2 years.
350
How did the international stage react?
-Agreed that the LoN should impose economic sanctions on Italy. -There were numerous statements condemning Italy & demanding respect for Abyssinian independence.
351
What were economic sanctions?
a form of diplomatic blackmail. By cutting of imports of vital goods & raw materials, they're intended to force a change in policy & behaviour. V. popular in 1930s as a way of taking action but avoiding war.
352
Why did B & F want to weaken the LoN's response of economic sanctions?
Did not want to drive BM into AH's arms and wanted to keep the SF alive.
353
How did B&F weaken their response?
They excluded oil from the economic sanctions- the one item that might have forced BM to take serious notice of the sanctions.
354
What did the confused B & F position result in?
The Hoare-Laval Pact of Dec 1935.
355
What didn't the B & F do until 1938?
Grant recognition to the AOI.
356
Why did some efforts to improve relations with Italy and to revitalise the SF fail?
Partly because of Anthony Eden, FSec, who had a v. hostile attitude to BM and made it clear he didn't think he'd ever be a reliable ally.
357
From the Summer of 1936..
BM's relationship w/ B & F was already DAMAGED. The consequences of his involvement in SCW would only serve to exacerbate this.
358
What controversial tactics did Italians deploy during the conquest of A?
-mustard gas-killing all male inhabitants in villages-killed 10 As for 1 Italian.
359
By how much did the budget deficit rise, due to the Abyssinian War?
2.5B lire to 16B lire
360
In October 1936, by what percent was the lira devalued?
40%
361
dates?
July 1936 to April 1939
362
What was the SCW?
A conflict in which the Spanish Rep Govt & LW groups fought against a RW nationalist rebellion led by Franco.
363
What did Antonio Machado characterise the divisions in Spain as?
"the 2 Spains"
364
The Republicans
-ranged from centrists to advocates of communism/ anarchism -power base: urban & secular-strong in Catalonia & the Basque County
365
The Nationalist Rebels
-Supporters: rural, rich conservatives -mostly Catholic-favoured the centralisation of power
366
Number of casualties?
500k-1M
367
What were many of the casualties the result of?
Not military fighting but mass brutal executions perpetrated by both sides.
368
How did the SCW start?
With military uprisings throughout Spain followed by Rep reprisals against the Church (allies of the rebels)
369
Which group in society faced potential massacres?
Catholic clergy (both regular and secular)
370
How many bishops were murdered?
12
371
How many priests were murdered?
over 4000
372
How did Franco retaliate to the massacres committed by the Reps?
Initiated a cleansing of anything "red" or related to the SRG, including TUs and PPs.
373
What was the SCW a training ground for?
AH's new toys ;)
374
What was the B govt's stance?
officially neutral
375
Although officially neutral, what did the B govt maintain?
-an arms embargo on Spain
376
What did the B govt discourage?
The anti-Fascist participation of its citizens.
377
What did the SRG hope would happen w/ start of WW2?
That the European powers would finally help them. Did NOT happen :(
378
What did BM and AH do?
They violated the embargo and sent troops, aircraft and weapons to help Franco.
379
How many troops did BM send to Spain?
60k troops
380
What was a consequence of the arms embargo?
SRG could only receive aid from USSR, which was:1) 1000s of miles away2)in economic disarray itself
381
Why were BM's troops essentially "volunteers"?
Italy never declared war on SRG.
382
What did a poster of the SRG urge Spaniards to do?
"Rise up against the Italian invasion of Spain!"
383
What did Italy give Spain?
1) 4 destroyers 2) 2 submarines 3) 4 motor torpedo boats
384
Which factor contributed the most to the development of the Axis?
Italian's involvement in SCW(B & F's reaction to Abyssinia had already undermined the SF)
385
What were the direct results of SCW?
1) Speed w/ which BM abandoned the defence of Austrian independence.2) BM's acceptance of the destruction of Czechoslovakia.3) The Pact of Steel.
386
International reasons why BM intervened in SCW...
1) To stop French LW influence in Spain.2) To cultivate an ally in a strategic area.3) To establish greater Italian influence in the Med.4) To demonstrate Italy's might to the world.`
387
Ideological reasons why BM intervened in SCW...
1) To fight against decadent democracy & Socialism.2) To help spread Fascism.
388
Domestic reasons why BM intervened in SCW...
1) To maintain the momentum for fascistisation at home.
389
General reasons why BM intervened in SCW...
1) To stay in the limelight.2) To have another war.3) He had become overambitious after the Abyssinian victory.
390
BM considered the conflict to be over...
... very quickly.
391
Whose decision was it for Italy to intervene in SCW?
BM's; few others favoured it, given the potential costs & little anticipated gains.
392
What did BM say the SCW did to the Italian economy?
"Bled Italy white"
393
How much did Italy's involvement in SCW cost?
14 B lire (1/2 a year's tax revenue) & required special levies.
394
What happened to the lire after SCW?
It was devalued.
395
What economic consequences did SCW have on Italy?
1) Disrupted Italian trade & reinforced the trend of increasing trade with Germany.
396
How much of her foreign currency reserves did Italy lose due to the SCW?
1/2
397
What were the domestic repercussions of the SCW?
Made the govt unpopular (apart from with the CC)
398
Where were Italian military weaknesses exposed?
Guadalajara
399
What were the military repercussions of Italian involvement in SCW?
:)1) Italy were on winning side- claimed a great victory.:(1) Prevented Italy from consolidating its strength after the Abyssinian conflict.2) Used up much needed weapons and ammo. 3) Italy's military strength was less in 1939 than in 1936; it was unprepared for WW2 in '39.4) Humiliated at Guadalajara; Italian weaknesses were exposed.
400
What were the POSITIVE international repercussions of Italian involvement in SCW?
:) 1) Italy gained a potential supporter in a strategic position, facing F & B.2) Helped establish another Fascist regime.
401
What were the NEGATIVE international repercussions of Italian involvement in SCW?
:( 1) Italy gained little of real value; just Spanish neutrality. 2) Diverted Italian attention from the German threat to Austria.3) Increased Italy's links with NG.4) It reinforced Italy's quarrel with B & F (but they still wanted her friendship)
402
What happened at Guadalajara?
Italians defeated by international brigades. MARCH 1937
403
Why did the deterioration in I-F relations occur?
Each country began supporting the opposing sides in the SCW in July 1936.
404
Who was the French PM & what did he think of BM?
Blum. He loathed BM & BM reciprocated these feelings.
405
What did Blum want with Italy?
wanted to revive the anti- German I-F understandings of 1935.
406
BM warned Blum he'd move closer to AH unless France...
1) ceased all aid to the SRG.2) accepted a Nationalist victory.
407
What did BM offer Blum in return?
his guarantees that a Nationalist Spain would maintain good relations with France.
408
How did Blum react to BM's offer?
He refused it.
409
What diminished the chances of an understanding between F & I?
When BM sent troops to Spain.
410
What was the most important period of the SCW in terms of the alignment of I w/ NG?
July 1937 to March 1938.
411
When does Neville Chamberlain become B PM?
May 1937
412
What does NC do right from the start of his premiership?
Undertook a major effort to...1) Restore I-B relations2) Prevent the Axis from developing into an anti-W alliance.
413
When do BM & NC begin secret talks?
July 1937
414
What were the terms of the first draft of an agreement between B & I?
1) BM would withdraw his forces from Spain.2) NC would ensure formal B recognition of the AOI.3) B would loan BM money for development of AOI.
415
How did BM react to the first draft of the proposed agreement between I and B?
Agreed. But his troops must first win a victory in Spain to avenge Guadalajara- NC agreed. BM also wishes to visit G before announcing the agreements.
416
What event upsets the first draft of the agreement?
The "Pirate Submarine" Campaign of 31st Aug '37 (Italian forces sink B submarine).
417
What happens mid- Oct 1937?
NC persuades BM to renew the secret contact but plans are scuppered by FSec, Anthony Eden, who decides these negotiations are a mistake.
418
When do the secret contacts resume between NC & BM after a third time?
Mid- Feb 1938. Eden resigns in protest. However 6M have been lost.
419
When does AH Austria?
March 1938
420
Why was BM unable to prevent AH annexing Austria?
-his military commitments in Spain-and his consequent diplomatic isolation
421
What event transformed the European situation greatly in AH's favour?
The annexation of Austria and the creation of a common G-I border.
422
When are the Easter Accords (the final draft of agreements between B & I) signed?
16th April 1938
423
What were the terms of the Easter Accords?
1) B would recognise AOI.2) BM would only withdraw from Spain after a nationalist victory.3) Both parties would respect the status quo in the Med & Red Seas.
424
How did BM react to the Easter Accords?
1) Anschluss & NC's willingness to accept Italian presence in Spain until total victory changed the value of EA in BM's mind.2) Rather than representing a step away from Axis, the EA involved only a tactical move on BM's part.3) G's strength & B's weakness had both become clear to him.
425
When does BM order invasion of Albania?
April 1938- a clear VIOLATION of the status quo clause of the EA.
426
When does BM order Ciano to sign Pact of Steel?
May 1938
427
When did BM first visit Germany?
September 1937
428
What impact did BM's visit to NG have on him?
Dazzled w/ spectacle of the G might & tempted by AH's offer of a partnership to rule Europe.
