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General Flashcards

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1
Q

What is generalisability?

A

How well study’s findings can be applied to behaviour outside of the study

Setting = ecological validity if it closely resembles a real world setting then is is normally possible to generalise

Sample = sampling validity studies where samples are not representative of target population lack representativeness

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2
Q

What is reliability?

A

How trustworthy are the results

  • test re test reliability show’s consistency in results
  • inter rater reliability shows agreement between researchers
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3
Q

What is replicability?

A

Can the study be replicated to produce the same results

  • a standardised procedure can be followed by other researchers to replicate the study
  • harder to replicate studies conducted in naturalistic settings as variables are uncontrolled
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4
Q

What is objectivity?

A

How far is behaviour measured without being affected by subjectivity

Increase objectivity by:

  • using a naive researchers
  • collecting quantitative data to minise the judgements researchers need to make
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5
Q

What is validity?

A

How valid are the results and conclusions

Participant variables
Extraneous variables
Situational variables
Demand characteristics 
Social desirability bias
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7
Q

What are the BPS principles?

A

RESPECT
- show respect for dignity and individual differences of participants respect privacy, confidentiality, informed consent and right to withdraw

COMPETENCE
- be aware of the implications of their actions refer to others who are competent when in doubt

RESPONSIBILITY
- must not harm people and avoid causing distress pain or suffering, debriefing

INTEGRITY
- be honest and accurate and respect personal boundaries

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11
Q

Writing evaluation of studies

A
  • Identify the aim of the study
  • identify the problem/ strength of the study
  • back up with facts and evidence
  • explain why it matters
  • relate the evaluation back to the aim of the study
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12
Q

When do you use a correlational design?

A

to find out the relationship between two variables

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13
Q

Describe positive correlation?

A

line rises from left to right, goes up

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14
Q

Describe negative correlation?

A

line falls from left to right, goes down

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15
Q

Describe no correlation?

A

points are scattered, no line of best fit

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16
Q

What is random sampling?

S + W

A

most representative sample, randomly selecting members of the target population

S - no bias = representative
- each step can be explained to work out if there is bias

W - difficult to sure everyone recruited is available
- can be bias in the sample, not every group in target pop is represented

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17
Q

What is Stratified sampling?

S + W

A
  • certain groups represented in a study and ensures all those groups are found by using strata

S - each group represented, diffs btw groups can be found
- efficient way of ensuring representation

W - difficult to know proportions
- strata may exclude some people

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18
Q

How is Stratified sampling done?

A
  1. decide target population and find total no. of people in it
  2. decide on sample size
  3. decide on strata groups
  4. select sample by randomly selecting a number of participants from each strata that is proportional to their number in the target population
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19
Q

How is random sampling done?

A
  • find the names of everyone in the target population (e.g. all girls in year 12 at school)
  • decide sample size
  • randomly select names of enough girls for sample size e.g. pick 20 names out of a hat
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20
Q

What is a volunteer sample?

S + W

A
  • participants select themselves by volunteering in response to advertisement

S - more ethical as there is consent
- volunteers and willing = more validity ?

W - long time to get a sufficient no. of volunteers
- biased, less likely to represent target pop

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21
Q

How is volunteer sampling done?

A
  • decide on target population
  • design an advertisement e.g. poster containing all details of the participation and contact info
  • display advertisement somewhere that the target population will see
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22
Q

What is opportunity sampling?

S + W

A
  • use whoever is available, no structured way to chose participants

S - more ethical, judge if ppts are mentally suitable
- quick and efficient

W - more chance of bias

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23
Q

What is a structured interview?

S + W

A
  • set questions must be asked in a set order, predetermined before interview

S - replicable and quick
- larger sample possible
W - lack of detail given due to restricted responses

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24
Q

What is a semi structured interview?

S + W

A
  • some required questions to ask but other questions can be asked as a follow up

S - reliable and valid
W - difficult to compare and analyse

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25
Q

What is a unstructured interview?

S + W

A
  • no predetermined set questions asked, any questions and prompt questions can be asked

S - more detailed answers
W - difficult to compare and analyses

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26
Q

What things should be considered before an interview ?

A
  • which interview type will be used
  • sample
  • predetermined question
  • method of transcription

social desirability bias

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27
Q

What are questionnaires?

A
  • used to ask participants questions about a topic of interest and about any personal data (only what is required) ppts can type or say their response.
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28
Q

What are closed questions?

S + W

A
  • limited responses allowed e.g. chose yes or no or responding to a statement with a ranked scale. generates quantitative data

S - standardised and reliable, easy to analyse and compare
W - limited responses

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29
Q

What are open questions?

S + W

A
  • respondent can answer openly, no constrained responses and generates qualitative data

S - respondents can interpret qs and give detailed answer
W - difficult to analyse.

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30
Q

Things to consider when using questionnaires?

A
  • social desirability bias = keep the questions anonymous
  • pilot study = to ensure all meanings of questions of clear
  • acquiescent response set = randomise question order
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31
Q

Types of questionnaire questions?

A
  • straightforward closed qs
  • likert scale
  • checklist
  • ranking
  • open qs
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32
Q

What are case studies?

A
  • specific type of study, multiple sources of data gathered about a unique person, group, situation
  • gathers in depth data
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33
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of case studies?

A

S = case studies support each others results
- use variety of data gathering methods, reliable and accurate

W = difficult to generalise to others as case studies participants are unique

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34
Q

What are experimenter effects?

A

cues and signals from the experimenter that may affect participant response
e.g. their age, gender, tone

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35
Q

How can we control experimenter effects?

A

double blind technique
- neither the ppts or experimenter know which experimental group the ppt is in.

single blind technique
- ppt doesn’t know that experimental group/ condition their in but the experimenter does

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36
Q

What are order effects?

A

it is the when the order in which the condition is completed in the repeated measures design affects the results

  • practice effects = ppts may perform better in the second task as they have gained experience from the first task
  • fatigue effects = ppts may do worse in the 2nd condition as they are tired of completing the first
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37
Q

How can we minimise order effects?

A

counterbalancing

randomisation

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38
Q

What is counterbalancing?

A
  • researcher alternates conditions for each ppt
    e. g. ppt A does task 1 then 2 but ppt B does task 2 then 1

order effects should cancel out

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39
Q

What is randomisation?

A
  • order of conditions is random

it is decided by a coin toss so order effects cancel out

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40
Q

What are demand characteristics?

A

ppts may guess what the study is about or what is expected from them and act in a similar way to that

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41
Q

What is a laboratory experiment?

A
  • an experiment that takes place in a lab
  • controlled setting where you can manipulate and IV and control extraneous variables to see if the IV has an affect on the DV
42
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a laboratory experiment?

A

Strengths

  • reliable/replicable due to standardised procedure
  • internal validity due to no confounding variables so cause and effect conclusions can be drawn
  • objectivity, strict controls minimise subjectivity

Weaknesses

  • lack validity due to unnatural tasks being conducted and risk of experimenter effects
  • low generalisability due to low ecological validity in an artificial environment
43
Q

What is a field experiment?

A
  • experiment carried out in a natural setting rather than a lab
  • with as many controls as possible and the iV is manipulated
44
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a field experiment?

A

Strengths

  • high ecological validity due to natural environment
  • objectivity as it is carefully measured

Weaknesses

  • lack validity as it is harder to control extraneous variables
  • low reliability as it is harder to replicate this study as a natural setting is unique
  • experimenter effects aren’t well controlled
45
Q

What is a repeated measures design?

A
  • it is where all participants complete both conditions so all participants produce 2 scores one from each condition
46
Q

What statistical test is usually used on data from a repeated measures design?

A

Wilcoxon Signed Ranks as data is related

47
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a repeated measures design?

A

Strengths

  • ppt variables are controlled as they cancel out
  • more data can be gathered as fewer participants are needed

Weaknesses

  • order effects (practice or fatigue effects) (reduce with randomisation or counterbalancing)
  • demand characteristics
48
Q

What is an independent groups design?

A
  • ppts only do one condition, so different participants complete different conditions
  • data produced from condition A and condition B will have come from 2 different groups of participants
49
Q

What statistical test is usually used on data from an independent groups design?

A

Mann Whitney U for at least ordinal data as data is unrelated

Chi squared for nominal data as data is unrelated

50
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of an independent groups design?

A

Strengths

  • no order effects as diff ppts do diff conditions
  • less likely for demand characteristics to occur

Weaknesses

  • ppt variables may affect the results
  • more participants are needed (separate groups for each condition)
51
Q

What is a matched pairs design?

A
  • ppts are matched up based on similarities and each does one of the conditions
  • different pppts do different conditions but the pppts are similar
    e. g. matched based on age or gender etc
52
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a matched pairs design?

A

Strengths

  • ppt variables shouldn’t affect the results are ppts are matched for similarities
  • no order effects

Weaknesses

  • ppt variables could still affect the results (other differences)
  • more people needed
  • matching ppts takes alot of time
53
Q

What is an independent variable?

A
  • variable that is systematically manipulated to see what effect it has on the DV
54
Q

What is a dependent variable?

A
  • variable that is measured by the researcher and it changes as a result of the IV
55
Q

What are extraneous variables?

- give 2 examples of types

A
  • other variables that aren’t the IV but they may also affect the DV
  • participant variables
  • situational variables
56
Q

What are participant variables?

A
  • things specific to the participant such as their mood, age, gender, social status, economic status etc
57
Q

What are situational variables?

A
  • things connected to the situation such as the noise, light, any interruptions
58
Q

What is a confounding variable?

A
  • an extraneous variable that is not controlled and affects the DV and the results of the study
59
Q

What are the 3 measures of central tendency?

- compare them

A
  • the mean = average score in the data, assumes data is symmetrical, interval or ratio it is mean can be skewed if there are outliers in the data
  • mode = most frequent score in the data, this is best for categorical data
  • the median = middle number in the data, used when the distribution is abnormal e..g. there are outliers so it is used when the mean is not valid
60
Q

What does the measure of dispersion show?

A
  • measure of dispersion shows how much data varies around the measure of central tendency and suggests whether the IV had the same affect on all participants
61
Q

What are 2 measures of dispersion?

A
  • the range = massively affected by outliers

- standard deviation = takes all dataset values into account

62
Q

When should a Mann Whitney U statistical test be used?

A
  • test of difference
  • at least ordinal level data
  • unrelated data
63
Q

When should a Wilcoxon Signed Ranks statistical test be used?

A
  • test of difference
  • at least ordinal level
  • related data
64
Q

When should a Chi Squared statistical test be used?

A

Either when there is a :

  • test of difference
  • nominal data
  • unrelated

OR

  • test or correlation
  • nominal data
  • data is related in correlational studies
65
Q

When should a Spearman’s rank order statistical test be used?

A
  • test of correlation
  • at least ordinal level data
  • data is related in correlational studies
66
Q

What is an alternate hypothesis?

A
  • a statement of what is expected in the experiment
67
Q

What is an null hypothesis?

A
  • a statement saying that any difference or relationship that is expected is due to chance so there is no difference or relationship
68
Q

What is a directional hypothesis?

A
  • states the direction that is predicted e.g. better or worse, positive or negative
  • statistically uses a one tailed test
69
Q

What is a non directional hypothesis?

A
  • just states that there there is a difference or a relationship
  • doesn’t say whether is will be better, worse, negative or positive
  • indicates that results could go in any direction
  • statically uses a two tailed test
70
Q

What is nominal data?

A
  • categorical data that cannot be ranked, ppts are assigned to different categories
71
Q

What is at least ordinal level data?

A
  • data which tends to be numerical that can be ranked from lowest to highest
72
Q

What is one main issue with correlational data?

A

correlation doesn’t mean causation

- correlational data doesn’t tell us which variable caused the other to happen or change

73
Q

What are twin studies?

A
  • natural experiments that investigate the role of nature by comparing monozygotic (same egg same DNA) and dizygotic (different eggs different genes) twins
74
Q

What are adoption studies?

A
  • the environment of adopted children is not the same as the environment of their biological families (nurture)
  • the genes of adopted children are common with their biological families (nature)
75
Q

What is an observational study?

A

it is a study where behaviours are observed and these can be scored or recorded

observations can be different based on the interaction with ppts, whether the observer is known to ppts or not and how the data is recorded

76
Q

What is a participant observation?

A
  • ppt is the observer
  • they interact with other ppts and with the situation (this can be done overtly so other ppts know they are be observed or covertly where they don’t know)
77
Q

What is a non participant observation?

A
  • the observer does not interact w other ppts or the situation that they are observing
78
Q

What is an overt observation?

A
  • open observation
  • ppts are aware that they are being observed

ethically good as consent can be gained
validity is low due to demand characteristic and social desirability

79
Q

What is a covert observation?

A
  • undercover
  • secret
  • ppts unaware of observation
    bad ethics but good validity
80
Q

What is a structured observation?

A
  • clear planned observation
  • what to record has be decided
  • identified behaviours that are observed are tallied
81
Q

What is an unstructured observation?

A
  • records all observed behaviour = qualitative
  • no plan of identified behaviours to record
  • can be naturalistic in a lab
  • time consuming, lacks objectivity, increase risk of mistakes
  • but there are more observations
82
Q

What is tallying?

A
  • marking a tally in a category each time a desired pre identified behaviour is observed
  • in the initial observation session categories of tallied behaviour are decided and recorded so researchers know what should be tallied
  • table for tallying created
83
Q

What is time sampling?

A
  • behaviour is only observed at predetermined time intervals (e.g. every 5 mins)
  • data that is observed at that point in time is recorded
84
Q

What is event sampling?

A
  • tally is marked every time a desired behaviour has occurred (e.g. picking up a bag)
85
Q

What are the steps of content analysis?

A
  1. data is collected
  2. researchers reads/ examines data to become familiar with it
  3. researcher identifies coding frames/ units that will be tallied
  4. data is analysed by tallying used the coding frames/ units
  5. quantify, a tally is made based of the number of time that specific code appears
86
Q

What are the steps of thematic analysis?

A
  1. data is collected
  2. researchers reads/ examines data to become familiar with it
  3. researchers re reads the data noting down any individual ideas
  4. similar ideas are then grouped together by the researchers in themes
  5. researchers decide on names for the themes
  6. themes represent the data
87
Q

What are animal studies?

A
  • experimental research using animals that is conducted by psychologists in a lab
88
Q

What are the 3 Rs Russell and Birch 1959?

A

REPLACE - the use of animals where possible w on sentient alternatives

REDUCE - the number of animals used

REFINE - procedures so that there is the least impact on animals

89
Q

What is the Animal (scientific procedures) Act 1996?

A
    • scientific procedures using protected species (all other living organisms than humans)
  • aim to protect animals from pain, distress, harm
90
Q

What does it mean if the correlation coefficients of MZ twins and DZ twins are the same?

A

only environment has had an influence

91
Q

What does it mean if the correlation coefficients of MZ twins is higher (but not 1.0) than DZ twins?

A

both genetics and environments have had an influence

92
Q

What does it mean if the correlation coefficients of MZ twins is 1.0 and DZ twins is lower?

A

only genetics has had an influence

93
Q

What is a correlation coefficient?

A
  • the number tells you the strength of the correlation
  • the sign (+ or -) tells you what type of correlation it is

closer to 1.0 = stronger correlation
closet to 0.0 = weaker correlation

94
Q

What are the strengths and weaknesses of twin studies?

A

S - controls the affect on the environment on the trait as both DZ and MZ twins share the same environment so any difference between the sets of twins is due to their genes

W - assumes that twins are always exposed to the same environment (DZ twins can be diff genders and so they would experience the environment differently)

95
Q

what is the equation to work out a stratified sample?

A

strata size/ total population x sample size

A level psychology (7 decks)

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