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Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

What is the Working Memory Model (WMM) Baddeley and Hitch (1974) ?

A

It is an active model that splits the STM into different components and explains how we store and process information that is being used

  • phonological loop (PL)
  • visuo spatial sketchpad (VSS)
  • central executive (CE)
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2
Q

What is the Phonological loop (PL) component of WMM?

A

it stores information on sound and speech and is split into two parts

  • articulatory loop = acts as the inner voice for rehearsing
  • primary acoustic store = inner ear, sound goes directly into this store.

duration = 15-30 seconds

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3
Q

What is the Visuo Spatial Sketchpad (VSS) component of WMM?

A

it stores visual and spatial info, it acts as our inner eye

  • what we see
  • where it is located

duration is a few seconds

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4
Q

What is the Central Executive (CE) component of WMM?

A

controls what is processed by the PL and VSS and the flow information, also does problem solving rather than acting as an information storage system
- can help the PL and VSS but it has a limited capacity
This means it allocates the cognitive memory tasks to the appropriate subsystems

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5
Q

What is the Episodic Buffer component of WMM?

A

Baddeley (2000) introduced this into the WMM as an addition (giving idea that the WMM was incomplete)
- it facilitates communication btw the CE and LTM

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6
Q

What were the findings of Robbins et al. (1996) dual task paradigm study?

A

ppts had to complete different task while playing chess e.g. tapping on the table

  • only tasks that used different WMM components to the ones being used to play chess (CE + VSS) could occur
  • supporting the claim that VSS and PL are separate stores

Multi tasking can only occur when the tasks use different wmm stores

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7
Q

What are the strengths of the WMM?

Evidence to support it

A

Robbins et al. (1996) = dual task paradigm study supports claim that VSS and PL are seperate

claims of the WMM are consistent with evidence from biopsychology,

  • Shallice and Warrington (1974) KF = KF had impaired STM for digits but a normal STM for non meaningful speech sounds
  • Ma et al. (2002) = Used fMRI to look at how brain activity differed due to the type of task
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8
Q

What are the weaknesses of the WMM?

A
  • it is difficult to test the existence of the CE individually without affecting VSS or PL
  • Baddeley (2000) = introduced episodic buffer into the WMM giving idea that the WMM was incomplete
  • Damasio (1994) = WMM doesn’t consider emotional/mtotivational factors
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9
Q

What is the Multi Store Model (MSM) Attkinson and Shiffrin (1968) ?

A

theory that info comes from our environment through our senses, it is briefly stored in the sensory store (SS) for less than a second. If information is attended to it moves to the short term memory store (STM). If it is rehearsed it is encoded into the long term memory store (LTM). IF it is not rehearsed it is lost from the STM through displacement and decay. If memories aren’t retrieved from the LTM it decays.

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10
Q

What does capacity mean?

A

size of the store, how much info it can hold

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11
Q

What does duration mean?

A

the length of time info can remain in that store

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12
Q

What does mode of representation mean?

A

the mode of storage

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13
Q

Describe the Sensory Store (SS)?

A
  • info from here that is attended, moves to STM
  • if it is not attended too it is lost
  • duration = 1/2 to 2 seconds
  • mode of representation = info is stored in the same format that it is received (modality specific)
  • several SS
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14
Q

Describe the Short Term Memory store (STM)?

A
  • info that is rehearsed here (repeated back) passes into LTM
  • info that isn’t rehearsed is lost by displacement or decay
  • holds info we are currently using
  • capacity = holds 7 bits at a time
  • duration = holds info for up to 30 seconds
  • mode of representation = auditory form
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15
Q

Describe the Long Term Memory store (LTM)?

A
  • info is retieved from the LTM and moves into the STM when we recall memories
  • info that isn’t retrieved often = retrieval failure and is lost through decay
  • capacity = finite
  • duration = is at least a lifetime
  • mode of representation = info is stored in semantic form
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16
Q

What are the claims of the MSM?

A
  • STM and LTM are seperate stores
  • STM and LTM are unitary
  • STM has a limited capacity
  • Rehearsal is necessary to retain info in the STM
  • Rehearsal is necessary to retain info in the LTM
  • STM processes acoustically and LTM processes semantically
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17
Q

What are the strengths of the MSM?

evidencet to support claims

A

GLANZER + CUNITZ (1968)
- evidence for the claim that STM + LTM are seperate
using a lab word list recall study, primarcy effect in LTM and recency effect in STM

RUNDUS (1971)
- evidence for rehearsal process to encode info into LTM
found that the more times a word was repeated (rehearsed) more likely it was be recalled

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18
Q

What are the weaknesses of the MSM?

evidence against

A

MSM oversimplifies structure of STM + LTM

supports claim that LTM has more than one store
MILNER ET AL. (1968)
- HM case study, procedural skills could still be learnt but semantic memories could be recalled

supports claim that STM has more than one store
SHALLICE + WARRINGTON (1970)
-KF case study is evidence for the above claim

TULVING (1972) EPISODIC LTM THEORY
- LTM has further stores episodic, semantic, procedural

BADDELEY + HITCH (1972) WMM
- WMM dvelopment of STM stores

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19
Q

What is the primacy effect?

A

Info learned first is well remembered as it has been rehearsed and copied into LTM

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20
Q

What is the recency effect?

A

info learned last is well remembered because it is still in STM and can be immediately recalled

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21
Q

What is dyslexia?

A
  • learning difficulty
  • normally affects reading
  • it is uncommon but not rare

HULME + SNOWING (2009) found 8% of school children in English speaking countries have dyslexic tendencies

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22
Q

How can the WMM (Baddeley and Hitch 1974) be used to explain dyslexia?

A

Reading requires us to:

  • register letters on a page using the VSS
  • translate and store letter as sounds using the PL
  • sounds are converted to words and then into phrases in the PL
  • links btw words and their meanings are made in the LTM
  • episodic buffer helps with following a text
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23
Q

What evidence is there to support the claim that dyselxia is caused by problems in the PL?

A

DEJONG (2006)
- dyslexia is caused by problems in PL development

HENRY (2012)
- people w dyslexia have a lower average PL functioning and dyslexic children have decreased PL spans than non dyslexic children

24
Q

Explain Katsui et al. (2001)

A
  • more dyslexia in countries with a alphabetic writing system
  • in japan they speak Kanji, where unlike in English each letter is related to a idea not a sound so it doesn’t rely on the PL
  • prevalence of dyslexia in Japan is lower than in the UK
25
Q

What is procedural memory?

A

it is a memory store that allows skills to be performed

it is not open to conscious inspection

26
Q

What is declarative memory?

A

it is a memory store that stores facts and knowledge it is split into 2 stores and is open to conscious inspection

27
Q

What is Tulving (1972) theory of LTM (episodic and semantic memory)?

A
  • Tulving elaborates on what is known of the LTM from the MSM and suggestions from Milner (1968) that there are 2 LTM stores one procedural store and another declarative store
  • the theory suggests that the declarative store is split into episodic and semantic stores.
28
Q

What is episodic memory?

  • material stored
  • time reference
  • location referencing
  • retrieval
  • forgetting/ change
A
  • autobiographical = memory for events and memories that are unique to the individual
  • they are stored and encoded based on experience (where and when)
  • semantic representation retrieval = only possible if memory is stored
  • retrieving it changes the memory and is context dependent
  • holistic, volatile,
29
Q

What is semantic memory?

  • material stored
  • time reference
  • location referencing
  • retrieval
  • forgetting/ change
A
  • cognitive = allows individual to understand the world
  • mental encyclopedia
  • not normally stored based on where/ when
  • semantic representation
  • more general (concepts and relationships)
  • retrieval = based on stored rules
30
Q

Evidence to support the theory of episodic and semantic memory (Tulving, 1972)

A

TULVING (2002)
- case study KC selective amnesia, could be taught skills and facts but couldn’t recall memories. shows dissociation btw episodic and semantic stores

Milner (1968)
- HM case study could learn new skills but couldn’t recall memories, suggesting the procedural and declarative stores

VARGHA-KADEM ET AL. (1997)
-Beth and Jon had impaired episodic memory, did well in school but couldn’t recall the days events, evidence for dissociation btw episodic and semantic stores

31
Q

Explain the HM Case Study, Milner et al (1968)

A
  • HM had surgery at 26 to help with his epilepsy
  • hippocampi from both sides of the brain were removed
    anterograde amnesia = couldn’t store new LTM but could learn new skills

Milner = supporst idea that STM and LTM are seperate stores but LTM may not be unitary as there could be different LTMs for procedural and declarative knowledee

32
Q

What is reconstructive memory theory and schema theory (Bartlett, 1932) ?

A
  • memory is not an accurate record of what actually happens

- enconding storing and retrieving changes the information

33
Q

What is a schema?

A

schemas = help us understand and interpret the world, using previous knowledge or memories about things people and situations

  • cognitive framework
34
Q

How do schemas affect memory?

A
  • –> schemas cause us to have expectations that affect how we perceive and remember things
  • schemas are general ideas
35
Q

What does remembering/ recall include?

A

reconstructing from details and schemas to form the memory but this can cause reconstructive errors

36
Q

What are the 3 reconstructive errors in Bartlett’s theory?

A
  • rationalisation
  • confabulation
  • distortion
37
Q

What is distortion?

A

A reconstructive error where details are discarded or changed to fit what is remembered with schemas

38
Q

What is rationalisation?

A

A reconstructive error where we reason and work out what probably happened based on our schemas (add details to the memory)

39
Q

What is confabulation?

A

A reconstructive error where we unconsciously fill in the gaps in our memory using information from our schemas

40
Q

What does Bartlett’s reconstructive memory and schema theory 1932 state?

A
  • memory is not veridical ( it is not a true representation)
  • schemas influence interpretation
  • relatively few details are actually encoded into LTM about events
  • remembering = reconstruct using details and schemas
  • recall includes = rationalisation, distortion and confabulation
41
Q

Explain BARTLETT (1932) WAR OF THE GHOSTS

A

BARTLETT (1932) WAR OF THE GHOSTS

  • longitudinal recall study
  • gave ppts a north american indian folk tale ‘ war of the ghosts’ and tested their recall of it numerous times up to a year later
  • compared their latest recalled version with earlier recalled versions and noted any cjanges
  • story changed in a no. of characteristic ways : it got shorter, details unfamiliar to ppts were left out, some parts were changed to make it more ‘english’
  • recall became more and more distorted over time
42
Q

Studies to support reconstructive memory and schema theory

A

BARTLETT (1932) WAR OF THE GHOSTS

  • story changed in a no. of characteristic ways : it got shorter, details unfamiliar to ppts were left out, some parts were changed to make it more ‘english’
  • recall became more and more distorted over time

LOFTUS AND PALMER (1974)

  • lab experiment 45 student ppts watcjed a film of 3 cars in an accident and were asked to estimate the speed at which cars were travelling when they _____
  • ____ end of q varied for groups but the words used here influenced ppts average speed estimates
  • ‘smashed’ = 40mph, ‘hit’ = 34mph, ‘contacted’= 32moh

CORDUS ET AL. (1979)

  • lab conditions showed 128 five and six year old children films featuring male and female doctors and nurses
  • asked children a series of questions to assess accuracy of their recall of the films
  • children who had seen female doctors and male nurses reported seeing male doctors and female nurses
43
Q

What is Autobiographical memory?

A
  • a subset of episodic memory containing information about events of personal importance
  • memories of experiences with special significance to your identity
44
Q

What are the 4 features of Autobiographical memory?

A
  • infantile amnesia
  • reminiscence bump
  • self enhancement effect
  • retention function

Supported by Rubin et al. (1968)

45
Q

What is infantile amnesia?

A

little or no recall from early life (before age 3)

- due to the developmental immaturity and lack of schemas

46
Q

What is the reminiscence bump?

A

tendency to recall more events from late teens to early 20s

- due to distinctiveness effect (first events) events are retrieved and rehearsed alot

47
Q

What is the self enhancement effect?

A

people often recall events in a way that is wrong but shows them in a good light
- reconstructive memories and positive schemas

48
Q

What is retention function?

A

recall at middle age decreases and increases towards present day
- due to inherent tendency for LTMs to decay overtime

49
Q

What are the aims of classic study BADDELEY (1966B)?

A
  • investigate influence of acoustic and semantic factors on learning and recall in the STM
    acoustically similar = simiar sounding
    semantically similar = similar meanings

aim to answer the Q how many memory stores do people have, look at encoding and recall error difference in STM and LTM

50
Q

What is the procedure classic study BADDELEY (1966B)?

A

-ppts split up to learn a list of words and then were tested on whether they could recall the words in the right order (Serial recall task)

each list had 10 words

list A = acoustically similar words (cat,mat,bat)
list B = acoustically dissimilar matched in freq everyday use
list C = semantically similar words (big,huge,large)
list D = semantically dissimilar matched in freq everyday use

  1. ppts shown words visually on a projector w one word appearing every 3 seconds
  2. interference/ displacement task completed to stop rehearsal (digit task)
  3. ppt asked to recall list in a sequential order in 1 min (they were shown a list of all the words but in the wrong order)
  • each ppt completed 5 trials, the first 4 were completed one after the other but before the 5th trial ppts had to wait 15mins and complete an interference task (copy 8 digit sequences) then do the trial
51
Q

What was the sample of classic study BADDELEY (1966B)?

A
  • volunteer sample of 72 ppts males and female
52
Q

What are the findings of classic study BADDELEY (1966B)?

A

ACOUSITC

  • mistakes in recall were made btw acoustically similar words
  • recall improved over 1st 4 trials
  • at 5th trial after interference task recall of similar and dissimilar words = same

SEMANTIC

  • no sig diff in recall over the 1st few trials
  • 3rd trial = sig diff = ppts recall semantically dissimilar words better and had more errors with semantically similar words

over a longer time recall errors were due to the meanings of words not the sounds of the words

53
Q

What are the conclusions of classic study BADDELEY (1966B)?

A
  • immediate recall = acoustic errors due to sounds
  • delayed recall = semantic errors due to meaning
- different type of error -> different memory store
STM and LTM encode differently
they are separate stores
STM = acoustic
LTM = semantic
54
Q

What are the aims of the contemporary study SEBASTIAN AND HERNANDEZ GILL (2012)?

A

The aim of this study is to investigate the development of the phonological loop in children age 5-17 using digit span as a measure of phonological capacity. PART 1

  • to look at the decline of digit span in older people, including those with dementia by using findings from a previous study PART 2
55
Q

What is the procedure and sample of the contemporary study SEBASTIAN AND HERNANDEZ GILL (2012)?

A

PART 1

gathering primary data from ppts of 570 ppts 5-17 year old Spanish students from Madrid schools in their classrooms

. Participants were divided into five different age groups and the average digit span was recorded for each age group

The main hypothesis was that there would be a difference in digit span which increases with age

  • IV was age
  • DV was digit span - measured by reading aloud sequences of digits one per second
  • Each time PPs got the sequence right, a digit was added to the end to increase the span
  • The starting point was 3 sequences of 3 digits
  • Digit span was considered the number of digits recalled correctly 2/3 times

PART 2

For the second part of the study they used data from their 2010 study where data was collected about the digit span of elderly people without impairment, with frontotemporal dementia and those with Alzheimer’s:

  • 25 PPs with Alzheimer’s
  • 9 with FT dementia
  • 25 controls that were completely healthy
56
Q

What are the results of the contemporary study SEBASTIAN AND HERNANDEZ GILL (2012)?

A

PART 1

  • showed very clearly that digit span increased with age
  • 5 year olds were very low in their digit span and it increased every year
  • Researchers compared their data with the from the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children IV (intelligence test for kids) and Data from the WISC-IV showed digit span increases with age, but the digit span was higher in the WISC-IV each time

PART 2

  • The elderly PPs’ results from the 2010 study were compared with the youngest from pt1
  • Elderly PPs showed a higher digit span than 5 (p<0.0001) and 6 (p<0.03) year olds
  • Performance of elderly PPs didn’t differ from other year groups (p>0.05)
  • Alzheimer’s PPs had a higher digit span than 5 year olds but not other year groups
  • FT dementia PPs had similar digit span to youngest groups
57
Q

What are the conclusions of the contemporary study SEBASTIAN AND HERNANDEZ GILL (2012)?

A

digit span increase with age from 5-17 years
adult digit span 7 digits similar to MSM
Spanish figures were 1 digit below English data as Spanish digits are longer than English digits = effects of word length
healthy old people have digit span similar to a 7yo
- dementia did not seem to affect digit span much digit spans of those with dementia was not too different from healthy old people

A level psychology (7 decks)

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