General Flashcards
Wathard’s rests
Small inclusions in ovarian epithelium
Alternative name for duct of Gartner
Wolffian duct
Location of Wolffian duct
Lies between layers of broad ligament below Fallopian tube
Runs medially towards body if uterus then downwards to run beside vaginal wall
Hydatid if Morgagni
Pea size translucent often pedunculated cyst at tube end of Wolffian duct
3 sets of tubules passing from garner’s/Wolffian duct to ovary
- Kobelt’s: outer, pronephric origin
- Epoophoron: middle, Mesonephoric
- Paroophoron: proximal, Mesonephoric
Gynandroblastoma
- Cell types
- Tissue origin
- Effects
- Granulosa and androblastoma
- Ovarian stroma and sex cords
- Masculinising and feminising effects
Which syndrome is vaginal atresia most commonly associated with?
Which other structure is absent and why?
Rokitansky-Mayer-Küser-Hauser syndrome
Uterus due to failure of development if Müllerian ducts
Damage to which rib can cause spleen injury?
10th
Recurrent laryngeal is a branch of _
Vagus
Mitochondria:
Function
Membrane structure
DNA
ATP production
Smooth outer, convoluted inner (=cristae)
Substances shunted between matrix and inter membrane space
Contain own DNA, maternal inheritance
Lysosome and peroxisome function
Disposal - rich in digestive enzymes
Degrade proteins, nucleic acids, polysaccharides
pH of lysosomes
4.8
Lysosome transport processes
Endocytosis - uptake by invagination of part of plasma membrane
Phagocytosis - larger particles enveloped by plasma membrane
Peroxisome function
Which substance generated in the process
How is it converted toO2 and H2O
Oxidise organic substances
Clear toxic molecules in blood, esp in liver and kidney
Main organelle for fatty acid oxidisation (precursors for key synthetic pathways)
H2O2
Catalase
What structure does cytosol contain?
What is its function?
What else does it contain?
Cytoskeleton
Rigidity and strength to maintain shape, reorganisation allows migration
Many particles eg glycogen-containing granules
Classes of cytoskeleton fibres
- Micro tubules 20nm
- Intermediate filaments 10nm
- Micro filaments 7nm
What is signal transduction?
Conversion of extra cellular signal to response in target cell
Define:
Endocrine
Paracrine
Autocrine
Other method of cell signalling
Release of hormone from endocrine gland that travels in blood to distant target
Signalling molecule acts on cells close by eg neurotransmitter
Cell responds to signal produced by itself eg growth factors, tumours
Membrane attached proteins
Effect of ACh on
Skeletal muscle
Myocardium
Increases contraction
Decreases force of contraction
Name 4 second messenger systems
cAMP cyclic adenosine monoP cGMP cyclic guanosine monoP Diacylglycerol Inositol triphosphate IP3 Calcium
How are IP3 and diacylglycerol produced?
Through hydrolysis of inositol phospholipids (phosphoinositides) mainly located in inner half if plasma membrane
Which is the most important inositol phospholipid for cell signalling?
What percentage if inositol lipids and total phospholipids does it account for?
PIP2 phosphatidyl bisphosphate
10%, 1%
Describe PIP2 breakdown steps
Signalling molecule binds to plasma membrane receptor
Activated receptor stimulates Gprotein (Gq)
Gq activates an inositide-specific phospholipase C (phospholipase Cβ)
PCβ cleaves PIP2 into IP3 and diacylglycerol
How does IP3 act
Water soluble
Diffuses into cytosol
Binds to
- IP3-gated Ca2+ channels in ER
- or in muscle cells ryanodine receptors in SR
To end response Ca2+ is pumped out of cytosol and IP3 is broken down by phosphatases
Mast cells are -philic
Basophilic
Mast cells contain
Heparin Histamine Serotonin Leukotrienes Platelet aggregating factor Leukocyte chemo tactic factor Hyaluronidase - degrades hyaluronic acid Storage granules with lytic enzymes eg tryptase
Factors triggering mast cell degranulation
Tissue injury
Drugs
Complement activation
Foreign antigenic material
Immunoglobulin mediating anaphylaxis
IgE
How does diacylglycerol act?
Remains attached to membrane
1. Cleaved to arachidonic acid - used as an eicosanoid precursor
2. Acts as second messenger
Rise in Ca2+ triggered by IP3 causes protein kinase C (PKC, C for calcium) to move from cytosol into membrane where it is activated by DAG
What is protein kinase C?
Serine/threonine PK that regulates other proteins by phosphorylating their residues
Can also alter transcription if specific genes
Give an example of protein kinase C altering gene transcription
- Catalyses phosphorylation of mitogen activated protein MAP which in turn phosphorylates and activates Elk-1 transcription factor
Elk-1 and serum response factor bind to serum response element (short DNA sequence in promoter region of target gene) leading to gene transcription - Activation if PKC releases nuclear factor kappa B which moves into nucleus to activate gene transcription
How is a second wave if DAG produced?
What is the effect of this?
DAG is released by phospholipase-mediated cleavage of phosphatidylcholine
Sustained activation of PKC
What is the major phospholipid in a cell
Phosphotidylcholine
What are eicosanoids?
What length of fatty acid chain are they synthesised from?
4 major groups
Signalling molecules continuously made in plasma membrane of mammalian cells
20-C mainly arachidonic acid ( cleaved from membrane phospholipids by phospholipases)
- Prostaglandins 2. Prostacyclins
- Thromboxanes 4. Leucotrienes
Boundaries of pituitary gland
Below
Above
Lateral
Sphenoid bone
Diaphragma sellae with optic chiasma lying above posteriorly
Cavernous sinus
Which adrenal gland is larger and lower
Right
Usually tetrahedral
5g 10x30x50
Diaphragm posterior, IVC anteromedially, superior bare area liver, inferiorly covered by peritoneum reflected from liver
Which adrenal gland is semilunar?
Left - higher and smaller the right
Lies in stomach bed, stomach, tail of pancreas and splenic vessels anterior, diaphragm posterior, no peritoneum
Which structure contains chromaffin cells
Adrenal medulla derived from neural crest
Cortex derived from mesoderm
