gender - sex, gender & androgny Flashcards
what is sex?
a person’s innate biological status as male or female, determined by different chromosomes (XX or XY)
(nature)
what is gender?
a person’s psychological gender identity / sense of maleness or femaleness - a psychological/social construct
(nurture)
gender is a…
fluid concept depending on the
social context a person is in – can become more masculine or more feminine
features of sex:
-male & female
-innate
-cannot be changed
-universal
features of gender:
-masculine & feminine
-psychological construct
-gender is fluid
-cultural
what is gender identity?
an individual’s perception of their own masculinity and or femininity
gender identity:
internal & external expression
the way someone identifies internally and how they choose to express themselves externally
↳ people can use their appearance, clothing style, and behaviours to express the gender they identify with
what does the WHO see gender as?
a social construct that people
typically describe in femininity and masculinity
what is gender dysphoria?
strong, persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with one’s own assigned sex
what are sex-role stereotypes?
widely held beliefs about expected or appropriate ways of acting for men and women
sex-role stereotypes & culture:
-each culture has its own ideas of what is ‘normal’ in terms of gender behaviours
-there are cultural and societal norms about what is acceptable behaviour for men and women, and there are pressures for people to conform to these expectations
what are societal norms?
unwritten rules and expectations that define appropriate behaviour within a community
how are sex-role stereotypes learned?
-stereotypes are learned from birth as children are exposed to the attitudes of parents and others in society
-they are socialised in people from others (parents, peers, teachers, media)
what do sex-role stereotypes become?
a social expectation, they can influence toys, subjects chosen, careers etc
examples of male gender stereotypes:
-strong
-independent
-unemotional
-ambitious
-dominant
-agressive
examples of female gender stereotypes:
-emotional
-caring/maternal
-yielding
-submissive
evidence for sex role stereotypes:
seavey et al (1975)
seavey et al study aim:
to see whether the gender label attached to a baby affected adult responses
seavey et al study: method
-a three-month-old infant was dressed in a yellow baby-suit
-one third of ppts were told that the infant was male / another third were told that the infant was female / the other third were not given a gender labe
-ppts were left to interact with the child for three minutes
-also in the room were some toys: a ball, a rag doll and a plastic ring
seavey et al study: results
when the baby was labelled as female, participants were more likely to use the doll when playing with the child.
when the baby was labelled as male, the plastic ring was chosen most frequently as the plaything
where no gender was given, the female participants interacted far more with the baby than the males did
in the no-label condition almost all the participants spontaneously decided on a sex for the baby →
their decision was often justified in terms of how the baby was perceived physically (eg. ‘it’s a
boy because he’s got a good grip, it’s a girl because she’s soft’)
seavey et al study: conclusion
-adults will interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female
-this shows that sex-role stereotypes exist
-children will be taught these through socialisation and these behaviours become the “norm”
strengths of sex-role stereotypes:
-there is support from seavey et al (1975)
-there is evidence for sex-role stereotypes from brain scans
ao3 / strength - there is support from seavey et al (1975)
P - there is support from seavey et al for sex-role stereotypes (1975)
E - a three-month-old infant was dressed in a yellow baby-suit. 1/3 of ppts told that infant was male, another third were told that the infant was female, & the other third were not given a gender label
↳ ppts left to interact with the child for three minutes
↳ in the room were some toys: a ball, a rag doll and a plastic ring
L - when the baby was labelled female, ppts were more likely to use the doll when playing with the child
↳ male baby = plastic ring
↳ when no gender was given, the female ppts interacted more with the baby than the males did
↳ in the no-label condition almost all the participants spontaneously decided on a sex for the baby
L - their decision was often justified in terms of how the baby was perceived physically
↳ adults will interact differently with infants depending on whether they believe they are male or female → this shows that sex-role stereotypes exist
ao3 / strength - there is evidence for sex-role stereotypes from brain scans
P - there is evidence for sex-role stereotypes from brain scans
E - Nadhura Ingalhalikar et al (2014) scanned the brains of 949 young men and women, using MRI scans / they mapped the connections between the different parts of
the brain
↳ they found that women’s brains have far better connections to the left and right sides
↳ men’s brains display more intense activity within the brain’s individual parts, especially the cerebellum which controls motor skills
L - a woman’s brain is hardwired to cope better with several tasks at
once
↳ therefore this provides evidence for sex role stereotypes (eg: women are better than men at stereotypes)
weakness of sex-role stereotypes:
sex role stereotyping in society may lead to children having expectations about what they can and cannot do
ao3 / strength - sex role stereotyping in society may lead to children having expectations about what they can and cannot do
P - a limitation of research into gender is that it often provides an explanation for the use of sex-role stereotypes in developing gender, (criticised for being socially
sensitive)
E - sex role stereotypes are one of the contributing factors to discrimination & prejudice in society, they can create barriers to education and careers
↳ girls who are socialised to believe that men are stronger and braver, may never consider pursuing a career in sport or the emergency
services
↳ boys who are socialised to believe that they are not supposed to be emotional and are expected to be strong, may never consider themselves to be a primary caregiver to their children
L - this means that sex-role stereotyping is negatively impacting on people and society by
imposing an outdated set of norms and views about behaviour that is no longer appropriate
David was playing football in the garden when his sister Judith began
to join in. When I grow up I want to be a footballer,’ said Judith.
‘Don’t be silly, David replied, ‘girls can’t play football.’
Question:
Define the term ‘sex-role stereotype’. Refer to David and Judith’s conversation in your answer.
A sex-role stereotype is a set of beliefs and ideas about what is expected or appropriate for boys/men and girls/women in a given society.
Judith has not yet developed an understanding of gender stereotypes when she says
she wants ‘to be a footballer’. David, however, shows how gender stereotypes have influenced his perception of appropriate roles for girls and boys when he says ‘girls
can’t play football’.
what is androgyny?
when an individual has a balance of
both masculine and feminine traits
(they cannot be categorised as purely feminine or masculine in terms of their characteristics)
who challenged feminine and masculine characteristics?
sandra bem (1974), challenged this
concept, suggesting more than just two gender types - she added androgynous to the masculine
and feminine identities
how do androgynous people adapt to their environment?
-androgynous individuals adopt traits and characteristics
(psychological and/or physical) that are advantageous in coping
with the demands of the real world
-an extremely feminine female may struggle with challenges in life that require stereotypically masculine traits (assertiveness, autonomy) whereas an androgynous female will
have the mixture of traits required for all situations and tasks, and
will avoid fixed sex-role stereotypes
what was created to assess androgyny?
the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
what is the Bem Sex Role Inventory?
the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a self report rating scale of 60 traits to produce scores across two dimensions: masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated
features of Bem’s Sex Role Inventory?
-devised by Sandra Bem (1974)
-20 characteristics that are considered to be ‘masculine’
-20 characteristics that are considered to be ‘feminine’
-20 characteristics that are considered to be ‘neutral’
-respondents rate themselves on a seven-point rating scale for each item (where 1 is ‘never true of me’ and 7 is ‘always true of me).
-scores are then classified on the basis of two dimensions (1.masculinity-femininity and
2. androgynous-undifferentiated)
masculine characteristics:
(Bem’s Sex Role Inventory)
-aggressive
-ambition
-dominant
-independent
-masculine
feminine characteristics:
(Bem’s Sex Role Inventory)
-affectionate
-compassionate
-loyal
-tender
-yielding
neutral characteristics:
(Bem’s Sex Role Inventory)
-conceited
-friendly
-moody
-solemn
-truthful
measuring androgyny and the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI)
score → classification
high masculine, low feminine
→ masculine
high feminine, low masculine
→ feminine
high masculine, high feminine
→ androgynous
low feminine, low masculine
→ undifferentiated
what did sandra bem suggest that androgyny is associated with?
psychological well-being
↳ people who have both male and female personality traits are equipped to adapt to a range of situations and contexts that non-androgynous people would find difficult
why did Bem (1974) find that androgynous people were more psychologically healthy?
-Bem suggested that androgynous people are more comfortable with who they are compared to those who show more conventionally differentiated male or female traits as there are not expectations forced upon them about how they
should behave.
-Bem argues that it has been usual in Western culture to encourage boys to inhibit the ‘feminine’ side of their personality and girls may learn to inhibit the ‘masculine’ side of their personality. If this does not happen, then the individual
can be viewed as ‘abnormal’ (e.g. effeminate)
why have neutral words in Bem’s Inventory?
the neutral words are there to take away demand characteristics as
respondents would be less aware of words being just feminine and
masculine
additional feature of Bem’s Inventory:
-Bem also built into her inventory a test of whether individuals were
answering in a way that might give a favourable impression of
themselves
-of the 20 neutral words, she made ten socially desirable (e.g. happy) and ten socially undesirable (e.g. jealous)
-if they were all scored to make the individual come across well then
this would indicate that the participant is answering in a socially
desirable way
strengths of androgyny:
-it has links with mental wellbeing
-the BSRI is that it has been shown to be a reliable tool
ao3 / strength - androgyny has links with mental wellbeing
P - androgyny has links with mental wellbeing
E - the general finding since 1974 is that there is a correlation between
androgyny and psychological wellbeing
↳ people who are androgynous
being more likely to have better self-esteem than those who are not
androgynous
↳ witt (1997) suggests that an androgynous gender identity may be more
beneficial to children than strict traditional gender roles as this will create more opportunities in careers, hobbies and lifestyles
L - these findings conclude that societal pressures children and adolescents face could be alleviated by a society that promotes androgyny (rather than rigid gender roles) for people to conform to
ao3 / strength - the BSRI is that it has been shown to be a reliable tool
P - a strength of the BSRI is that it has been shown to be a reliable tool
E - bem gave the BSRI to 600 students and found that a high number scored androgynously
↳ the reliability of these finding was tested during a second study, four weeks after the first study took place / the second study included 56 of the original students who were all asked explicitly not to try and recall how they had answered on their first attempt
L - Bem found that the results from the first and second study correlated significantly, therefore the BSRI as a tool for investigating gender can be concluded as reliable
weaknesses of androgyny:
- the BSRI lacks temporal validity
-the use of self-report methods such as the BSRI are criticised
for lacking internal validity
ao3 / weakness of androgyny - the BSRI lacks temporal validity
P - one limitation of the BSRI is that it lacks temporal validity
E - the BSRI was developed in the 1970s and is considered by critics to
be outdated as the tool is based on old-fashioned gender stereotypes that are no longer relevant
↳ modern/day populations who are asked to agree on masculine and
feminine stereotypes are not likely to hold the same opinions that
laid the foundation for the BSRI as masculinity and femininity are
no longer so clearly differentiated
L - therefore, the BSRI lacks validity and may no longer be an accurate
tool for investigating gender
ao3 / weakness of androgyny - the use of self-report methods such as the BSRI are criticised for lacking internal validity
P - the use of self-report methods such as the BSRI are criticised for lacking internal validity
E - the BSRI requires individuals to rate themselves against traits
honestly and accurately, which may lead people to under or overestimate themselves, misinterpret questions/traits or
consciously try to appear desirable to researchers
L - the consequence of these possibilities is a decrease in the
internal validity of the BSRI and any conclusions drawn from research that utilises this tool
Patrick works as a head baker in a bakery. As part of a work appraisal he has just completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory.
His score shows that he is highly androgynous.
Explain how Patrick’s high level of androgyny might be
demonstrated in his behaviour at work. (4 marks)
Patrick will enjoy a laugh and a joke with the other men in the workplace and will also join in with more sensitive/intimate discussions
Patrick will be firm/authoritative with people in his team and also
be sensitive/empathic when someone is unwell or stressed
Patrick will engage in the heavy work like lifting sacks of flour and
will also enjoy the more delicate tasks such as cake decorating and
intricate pastry work
Researchers wished to study the link between androgyny and
psychological health. They surveyed a stratified sample of 100 18-
year-old students from four different schools. Some schools had a
large number of students and others had a smaller number of
students. The students were asked to rate themselves on an
androgyny scale and then answered a series of questions. The
questions focused on students’ self-esteem and how they felt about
their relationships with others.
(a) Explain how the researchers could have obtained a stratified
sample from the four different schools. (4 marks)
-identify strata / sub-groups in their population, e.g. the four different
schools
-calculate the required proportion from each stratum based on the
proportion in the population
-select sample at random from each school / stratum / sub-group
-use a random selection method, e.g. assign each student a number then use a computer, calculator or random number table to select specified number of numbers between 0 and X (or hat method)
SPEC POINTS about the role of biology in sex and gender:
-the role of chromosomes and hormones (testosterone, oestrogen and oxytocin) in sex and gender
-atypical sex chromosome patterns: Klinefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome
what does the biological explanation of gender suggest?
-gender is not learnt but instead
is a result of physiology alone
-relevant gender characteristics and traits develop due to genetics & hormones
order of development in terms of biological explanations:
gender development begins at conception, followed by
hormonal changes in the womb, the development of reproductive systems and finally the influence of these changes on the brain
how do chromosomes relate to sex?
-there are 23 pairs in humans containing genetic information
-the 23rd pair determines biological sex: XX for female XY for male
sex in foetuses:
-all foetuses have the same undeveloped sex organs
-the gonads can develop into
male or female sex organs
-the presence or absence of a single gene (SRY gene) will dictate the future development of the foetus as a male or a female
how does male development occur?
(steps)
1) when the foetus is about three months old, if it is a male & has an XY chromosomes, the SRY gene on Y chromosome influences the ambiguous gonads to develop in testes
2) the testes then produce testosterone
3) testosterone triggers the
development of external male
organs (penis)
how does female development occur? (steps)
1) the absence of male hormone will result in the development
of the female sex organs
2) the female determining gene on the X chromosome means that female embryos will produce large quantities of oestrogen
3) oestrogen triggers the development of the female
reproductive system
what happens once the testes and ovaries develop?
they begin to release their own sex hormones…
↳ testes release male hormones (androgens) the most widely known = testosterone
↳ ovaries release oestrogen
↳ women also typically produce oxytocin in much larger
amounts than men
do females produce testosterone?
yes, just in much smaller amounts than in males
roles of testosterone:
-when released in the womb, causes the development of male sex
organs (at 7 weeks)
-results in the masculinisation of the brain → increases lateralisation
at puberty, males have a surge in testosterone levels which has several effects:
→ cause the growth of the sexual organs (testes, penis
→ causes increased muscle strength and size
-involved in aggression
-leads to larger SDN
roles of oestrogen:
-promotes the development of secondary sexual characteristics (such as breast development)
-directs the menstrual cycle
-strengthens bones
-fluctuating levels thought to be responsible for mood fluctuations
-thought to be responsible for heightened emotions during the
menstrual cycle (PMS)
how does oestrogen control the menstrual cycle?
menstruation begins as the
ovaries secrete oestrogen which leads to the release of eggs in readiness for reproduction
brain-sex & hormones:
-brain sex is governed by chromosomes and hormones
-difference in size of the SDN between genetic males and genetic females
-the SDN is approximately 2.5 times bigger in genetic males than in genetic females
where is oxytocin produced?
in the pituitary gland
roles of oxytocin:
-the ‘love’ hormone produced during labour → allows an individual to feel nurture
-stimulates lactation & helps with childbirth (widens cervix, prevents excessive bleeding after birth)
-reduces stress and anxiety
-released during sexual intercourse
what is the SDN associated with & what does this mean?
the SDN is associated with our psychological gender identity, differences in sizes between genetic males and females show that this difference in biology contributes to psychological gender identity differences
strengths of the biological theory of gender development:
-the biological theory of gender development is supported by research (david reimer)
-the biological explanation of gender has gathered research support from young
ao3 / strength - the biological theory of gender development is supported by research (David Reimer)
+HOWEVER
P - the biological theory of gender development is supported by research (david reimer)
E - money believed that children are born gender-neutral and that gender is the result of nurture rather than biology / he studied Bruce (David Reimer), a genetic male who was raised as a girl
↳ despite hormone treatment, surgery and being raised by his parents as a female, Bruce (who was living as Brenda) did not identify as a female and in adult life, reversed the surgery and continued to live as a male
L - case study provides crucial support for the biological explanation of gender, and disputes contrasting theories about gender being neutral at birth and influenced by nurture
↳ it can be concluded that biology appears to be the strongest influence in determining gender
HOWEVER: it is a case study & can’t be generalised to all people
ao3 / strength - the biological explanation of gender has gathered research support from Young
+HOWEVER
P - the biological explanation of gender has gathered research support from Young
E - Young manipulated the amount of testosterone exposed to unborn baby rats & found that the female offspring were born masculinised
↳ the masculinised female offspring played more aggressively, had an increased size in the SDN, and they demonstrated more exploratory behaviour, in contrast to female offspring who were not exposed to more testosterone in utero
L - this provides support for the claim that hormones and physiology are highly influential in gender development
HOWEVER: animals aren’t as complex as humans physiologically, the results of the study can’t be generalised to humans
weakness of the biological theory of gender development:
the biological theory is criticised for taking a biologically reductionist view of gender
ao3 / criticism - the biological theory is criticised for taking a biologically reductionist view of gender
P - the biological theory is criticised for taking a biologically reductionist view of gender
E - it assumes that this complex psychological and physiological part of our identity can be broken down to the lowest level of explanation - genes and hormones
↳ consequently, the theory ignores the roles of any nurturing influences such as culture or media / e.g: by the time children are five years old, they have already established some biological gender development and have been exposed to gender roles and stereotypes in their environment
L - this makes it incredibly hard to disentangle nature and nurture influences, concluding that the biological theory of gender isn’t a holistic view of gender
what are atypical sex chromosome patterns?
variations in the 23rd pair of chromosomes from the usual XX/XY formation
why are atypical sex chromosomes helpful?
the behaviour of those with atypical sex chromosomes can be compared to those with typical sex chromosomes to see if differences in gender may be biological
what chromosomes do boys with klinefelter’s syndrome have?
XXY - additional X chromosome on 23rd pair
description of klinefelter’s syndrome:
-affects 1 in 600 males in the UK
-causes physical and physiological differences compared to “typical” males
which physical differences does klinefelter’s syndrome cause?
-breast development (due to excess
oestrogen caused by extra X chromosome)
-lack facial, body and pubic hair, -underdeveloped genitalia
which physiological differences does klinefelter’s syndrome cause?
-poorer verbal & reading skills than typical males
-more passive and quiet
what chromosomes do girls with turner’s syndrome have?
XO - only one X chromosome on 23rd pair
description of klinefelter’s syndrome:
-affects 1 in 2000 males in the UK
-causes physical and physiological differences compared to “typical” females
which physical differences does turner’s syndrome cause?
(exist due to lack of oestrogen)
-webbed neck
-underdeveloped ovaries
-lack of menstruation at puberty
-delayed puberty
-narrowing of hips
which psychological differences does turner’s syndrome cause?
-higher than average reading and verbal skills
-struggle to form social
relationships
-underperform in maths
Howard is 14 and has been diagnosed with Klinefelter’s syndrome.
He is quite tall for his age and long-limbed.
Howard is often described by others as a clumsy boy and although he has some close friends, he tends to be quite shy and passive at school.
1) Identify how Howard’s sex chromosome pattern differs from that of most boys.
2) Explain how studying people like Howard can contribute to our understanding of gender.
1) a typical boy has XY chromosomes, but Howard has XXY chromoromes
2) they can help us figure out if differences in gender are due to chromosomes (biology) or nurture
strength of research into klinefelter’s and turner’s syndrome:
one advantage of biological research into Klinefelter and Turner syndrome is the ability to manufacture treatment
ao3 / strength - one advantage of biological research into Klinefelter and Turner syndrome is the ability to manufacture treatment
P - one advantage of biological research into Klinefelter and Turner syndrome is the ability to manufacture treatment
E - treatments for Klinefelter include testosterone replacement therapy (TRT) to increase testosterone levels and increasing facial hair and reducing breast size / females diagnosed with Turner Syndrome can be treated with ostrogen replacement therapy (ORT) to increase ostrogen levels that have been lowered by the absent X chromosome
↳ treatment will help with breast and reproductive development & may reduce the social pressures faced by girls with Turner Syndrome
L - these implications suggest that those living with Klinefelter or Turner Syndrome can externally look more similar to the gender, possibly making them feel more confident & accepted
criticisms of research into klinefelter’s and turner’s syndrome:
-a limitation of research into atypical
chromosomes is that nature and nurture are hard to disentangle
-not everyone with klinefelter & turner syndrome have the same degree of symptoms
ao3 / criticism - a limitation of research into atypical chromosomes is that nature and nurture are hard to disentangle
P - a limitation of research into atypical chromosomes is that nature and nurture are hard to disentangle
E - girls with Turner’s have higher verbal ability and “talk more” than typical girls, we could infer that these differences are due to biology
(the atypical chromosome structure), this would support a nature viewpoint
↳ however, it may be that environmental and social influences are more responsible for the differences in behaviour / e.g: being treated differently by peers and adults may be the root cause of struggling to form relationships
L - therefore, it is hard to know which symptoms of Turner Syndrome are wholly the result of nature or not
ao3 / criticism - not everyone with klinefelter & turner syndrome have the same degree of symptoms
P - not everyone with klinefelter & turner syndrome have the same degree of symptoms
E - 1 in 10 people can develop ‘mosaic’ klinefelter or turner syndrome, occurs when the additional X chromosome or missing X chromosome only appears in some of their cells rather than all of them, reducing the severity of their symptoms
↳ there’s likely to be a number of people who are unaware that they have the syndrome & have symptoms that
may not be visible or problematic enough to seek medical help
L - this means that our knowledge of the syndromes is saturated to the most severe cases, and knowledge is unrepresentative of the full spectrum of people living with the syndrome
↳ the consequence of only studying those with severe symptoms is that we do not have insight into how milder symptoms impact on physical and psychological development
