gender - explanations of gender development Flashcards
what do cognitive theories suggest about gender development?
-cognition (‘thinking’) has an impact on gender behaviour
-environmental factors and brain development influence cognition and cognition influences gender behaviour
what are the two cognitive explanations for gender development?
-kohlberg’s theory
-gender schema theory
what viewpoint do both cognitive explanations of gender development share?
a child’s mental concept of gender
becomes more sophisticated with age
→ as a child’s cognitive abilities develop, thinking about gender changes
kohlberg’s beliefs about his gender schema theory:
-kohlberg believed that these
stages were universal and that m children go through the same
cognitive development
-any differences in male and
female behaviour was due to
cultural differences in what is
perceived as masculine and
feminine
what did kohlberg suggest?
that children’s sense of gender develops over three stages,
which are gone through gradually
what were kohlberg’s stages of development?
1) gender identity
2) gender stability
3) gender constancy
gender identity/labelling
(ages & features)
age 2 - 3:
-they are able to correctly identify themselves and other people’s sex -they aren’t aware that their sex is permanent/believe it can change
(children begin to think about gender at approx. 2 years)
gender stability
(ages & features)
ages 3 - 4:
-children begin to realise
that their sex will not change over time
-due to being egocentric they do not realise that this also applies to other people
gender constancy:
(ages & features)
ages 6 - 7:
-can see through superficial changes and understand that gender is constant
-they become less egocentric & appreciate that other people
have a different point of view from their own
what else is important about gender constancy?
-kohlberg’s thought that at this time that children actively seek
out role models to imitate to help them develop their sense of gender
-for Kohlberg, once the child has a fully developed and internalised concept of gender at the constancy stage, they embark upon an active search for evidence which confirms that concept
which questions could asked to establish which stage which stage a child is in?
gender identity - which one are you? (when shown a picture of a boy/girl)
gender stability - will you grow up to be a mummy or a daddy?
gender constancy - if you wore (insert opposite sex clothes), would you be a girl or a boy?
strength of kohlberg’s stage theory:
-there is research evidence to support Kohlberg’s stage theory (slaby and frey - 1975)
ao3 / strength - there is research evidence to support Kohlberg’s stage theory (slaby and frey - 1975)
P - there is research evidence to support Kohlberg’s stage theory (slaby and frey - 1975)
E - slaby and frey conducted research to test the accuracy of kohlberg’s theory / they interviewed 55 children between 2-5 years old & asked them questions to find out which stage they were in (eg: ‘where you are little boy or girl when you were a baby / when you grow up will you be a mummy or a daddy?’)
↳ children didn’t recognise that these traits were stable over time until they were 3 or 4 years old, supporting gender stability
criticismsq of kohlberg’s stage theory:
-the age of gender constancy is not always supported in research
-there are methodological issues in the research, which undermines the findings
ao3 / criticism - the age of gender constancy is not always supported in research
P - the age of gender constancy is not always supported in research
E - there is evidence that suggests that many children begin to
demonstrate gender-appropriate behaviour before gender constancy is achieved / researchers found that children as young as 4 reported
‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys and ‘feeling
bad’ about doing the opposite
L - this contradicts kohlberg’s stage theories predictions and so undermines the validity of his theory
↳ this supports gender-schema theory, which suggests that
children begin to absorb gender-appropriate information as soon as
they identify themselves as either male or female at the age of 2-3
ao3 / criticism - there are methodological issues in the research, which undermines the findings
P - there are methodological issues in the research, which undermines the findings
E - kohlberg’s theory was developed using interviews with children who
were sometimes as young as 2 & 3
/ though the questions asked were tailored toward the particular age
group he was dealing with, kohlberg may not have acknowledged that very young children lack the vocabulary required to express understanding
↳ the children may have relatively complex ideas about gender but not the verbal ability to express these – therefore what they express might not truly reflect their understanding
L - this weakens the theory’s evidence and so casts doubt on the theory
who proposed gender schema theory?
Martin and Halverson (1981)
outline of gender schema theory:
it proposes that children acquire their gender identity through the development of gender schemas
what are schemas?
a cluster of beliefs about a topic or concept
what is a gender schema?
a collection of ideas about what it means to be ‘male’ or ‘female’
when does gender schema theory suggest that children
around the age of three, children begin to search for ‘rules’ and create schemas about how males and females should behave
what is the key to gender schema theory?
children aren’t passive in this development
gender schema theory:
1) a child achieves gender identity around 2 to 3 years → they search the environment for information that encourages development of their gender schema
2) the schemas then expand to include a wide range of behaviours and personality traits associated with their gender, young children usually form their schemas around stereotypes
3) stereotypes provide a framework that directs understanding of the self
4) by 6 years old a child has rather fixed and stereotypical ideas about what is appropriate for their gender / children are likely to disregard information that does not fit with their existing schema
children & their own gender:
-children have a much better understanding of the schemas that are appropriate for their own gender → children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity, rather than that of the opposite sex
-children find appropriate toys and sports for their gender through the environment
when do children develop their in-group scheme?
2-3 years, this is the first schema that develops
what is the in-group schema?
the group that the child belongs to and has a better understanding of
when does the outgroup schema develop?
much later than the in group schema, around 8 years (they develop elaborate schemas for both genders)
how do gender schemas develop?
children go on to develop scripts of activities and/or actions that
males and females perform
↳ children monitor their environment for information that’s consistent with their ideas of appropriate gendered behaviour and assimilate this information into their thinking
↳ if behaviour is considered inconsistent they may just ignore it so that their schemas don’t need to be altered
why are stereotypes helpful for children?
children need to be able to predict behaviour and stereotypes allow them to do this
how do teenagers and schemas relate?
teenagers abandon in and out group schemas and are able to start exploring gender without constraints,they become more androgynous
similarities of gender schema theory & kohlberg’s theory:
-both agree that the child’s thinking
(cognition) is at the basis of their
development of gender role b
-both suggest that children’s understanding of gender increases with age
-both share the view that children develop their understanding of gender by actively structuring their own learning, rather than
passively observing and imitating role models
differences of gender schema theory & kohlberg’s theory:
-GST believes that gender development happens before gender constancy is achieved, starting at around age 2-3
-GST thinks that children only need a basic gender identity to start the
process of understanding gender
strengths of gender schema theory:
-there is evidence from martin & halverson to support the predictions of Gender Schema Theory
ao3 / strength - there is evidence from martin & halverson to support the predictions of Gender Schema Theory
P - there is evidence from martin & halverson to support the predictions of Gender Schema Theory
E - martin & halverson developed research to test their theory, they found that children under six were more likely to remember gender-consistent information than gender-inconsistent behaviour / researchers showed children pictures of people carrying out activities →
sometimes these pictures were schema-consistent (girl playing with a doll, a male firefighter), sometimes they were gender-
inconsistent (girl playing with a gun, a female firefighter)
↳ findings showed that recall for schema-consistent pictures was generally good / when schema inconsistent pictures were recalled they were often distorted so that the expected sex was remembered as carrying out the activity (e.g: children recalled that the boy had been playing with a gun rather the girl)
L - this lends support to the idea that children build gender schema and this is what their memories are based on
criticisms of gender schema theory:
-methodological issues
-lacks scientific credibility
ao3 / criticism - methodological issues
P - there are methodological
issues with interviewing children to investigate cognitive theories
E - children may be more subject to demand characteristics, giving the answer they think will please the researcher, which might not be what they actually believe
L - this weakens the evidence for gender schema theory
ao3 / criticism - lacks scientific credibility
P - one disadvantage of the gender schema theory is that it lacks scientific credibility
E -schemas are internal mental processes, this makes it hard for any studies to operationalise them accurately
↳ the theory is very descriptive about schemas and the ages at
which they develop and change over time; however, the theory fails to explain why we have schemas and precisely why they change
↳ this cognitive theory of gender is not regarded as the most scientific
paradigm
L - in contrast, the biological explanation of gender can describe and explain why gender changes as we grow older
↳ this theory is also considered more testable and falsifiable
what does psychodynamic theory state?
-that events in our childhood have a great influence on our adult lives, shaping our personality
-events that occur in childhood can remain in the unconscious, and cause problems as adults
how did freud propose that all development occurs?
psychosexual development occurs in 5 stages (this isn’t gender development)
what are the psychosexual stages of development?
-oral (1-2)
-anal (2-3)
-phallic (3-5)
-latency (6-12)
-genital (12+)
psychosexual theory of development: similarities between stages
-each stage of development is marked by a conflict
-conflicts must be resolved at each stage to ensure healthy psychological development
-failure to successfully pass through a stage’s conflict is fixation
what is freud’s theory of gender development?
-before the age of three, gender identity is flexible, and there is no clear difference between girls and boys
-children have no real
sense of being masculine or feminine – they are bisexual
-when children move into the phallic stage, however, their understanding of gender begins to change
the phallic stage:
(ages 3 - 5)
-during this stage, the child seeks pleasure from playing with his or her own genitals
-the child begins to pay attention to
other people’s genitals & understand the physical differences between males and females
-this is the start of children’s developing gender identity
what is the main force behind a child’s gender development?
according to freud, the main force
behind a child’s gender development is their relationships with their parents
what is the mother for both boys & girls?
the mother is the first love object for
both boys and girls
→ for three year old boys, this
love turns to lust & gives boys an oedipus complex
steps of the oedipus complex:
-boys develop a passionate desire for their mother & see their father as rival
-boys see that their sisters don’t have a penis and think that they have been castrated
-they are afraid their father will discover their desire for their mother and punish them by castrating them
-they develop castration anxiety
-the child then identifies with the father and internalises his gender identity to prevent castration
steps of the elektra complex:
-girls desire father
-girls notice sex differences & think they have been castrated → penis envy (they blame their mother)
-they substitute their penis envy with a desire for a child (when they realise that they can’t have a penis)
-girls identify with their mother and develop her gender identity
why is their conflict in the oedipus complex?
there is conflict between lust for mother and fear of father:
↳ boys use the defence
mechanism, repression to push
their desire for their mother and
hostility for their father into the
unconscious
↳ this reduces the tension
between a son and his father, allowing the son to identify with
the father and reducing the
threat of castration
why is their conflict in the elektra complex?
there’s conflict between lust for father and fear of losing mother’s love
↳ girls identify with their mother
but are less motivated than boys so
develop a weaker gender identity
↳ they retain mother’s love
↳ they also internalise the mother’s role & still hope to attract their father in the same way as mother
identification at the end of the phallic stage:
-towards the end of the phallic stage, children resolve their
conflicts by identifying with the same sex parent
-identification develops a superego
-the parent’s morals, gender identity and role (as a male or female) is adopted
what is identification?
a desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because they possess certain desirable characteristics
why do levels of masculinity and femininity vary between siblings?
-the presence of brothers and sisters is thought to complicate
this process of identification
-each has a slightly different experience and relationship with their parents; therefore, each develops different levels of masculinity and femininity
what is internalisation?
an individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another
little hans case study:
-little hans was a five-year-old boy who had become very frightened
when he saw a horse fall in the street & thought it was dead
-he then developed a fear of horses.
-freud interpreted this information in terms of the Oedipus complex.
-he suggested that Little Hans had sexual longings for his mother.
-the horse represented his fear of his father, who Hans wanted dead
what does the psychodynamic explanation of gender development suggest about single parent families?
-unable to experience oedipus/electra complex
-do not resolve conflicts necessary to develop a healthy gender identity
-boys therefore would become
homosexual with no father
figure to identify with
strength of the psychodynamic theory of gender:
-it is supported by case study evidence (little hans)
ao3 / strength - it is supported by case study evidence (little hans)
P - the psychodynamic theory of gender is supported by case study evidence
E - the little hans case study supports the existence of the phallic stage of development
↳ little hans had a phobia of horses when he was approximately three years old, freud concluded that hans was experiencing the oedipus
complex and was subconsciously scared of his father / this fear manifested as a fear of horses, particularly those with dark
patches around the mouth (representing his father’s beard) and blinkers (represented his glasses)
L - freud concluded that the study of Little Hans provided support for his theory of psychosexual development and the idea that boys in the phallic stage experience the oedipus complex
criticisms of the psychodynamic theory of gender:
-the psychodynamic explanation of gender is criticised for lacking scientific credibility
-evidence contradicts freud’s theory about non nuclear families
ao3 / criticism - the psychodynamic explanation of gender is criticised for lacking scientific credibility
P - the psychodynamic explanation of gender is criticised for lacking scientific credibility
E - the explanation is reliant on concepts such as repression
and the phallic stage / these concepts underpin the explanation of gender, however, they do not meet karl popper’s scientific criteria of falsification (the ability to be proven or disproven)
L - therefore the psychodynamic explanation of gender development can be seen more as pseudoscience
ao3 / criticism - evidence contradicts freud’s theory about non nuclear families
P - the psychodynamic explanation of gender relies on a child having two parents of a different gender and suggests that being raised in a non-nuclear family would have adverse effects on the child
E - one researcher found that children from single parent families develop normal gender identities
↳ green (1978) studied 37 children raised by gay/transgender parents, only 1 had a gender identity described as ‘non-typical’
L - therefore, evidence contradicts Freud’s theory as same sex parents
are not necessary for healthy gender development
Beatrix is three years old. At her nursery, there are lots of toys to play with but Beatrix nearly
always chooses to play with the dolls and the toy kitchen. When she comes home from nursery she tells her mother about other girls at nursery but hardly ever mentions any of the boys.
Use your knowledge of gender schema theory to explain Beatrix’s behaviour at nursery and at home.
-Beatrix is three years old so will have developed a gender identity of herself as a girl, and along with that, is developing a ‘girl’ schema
- her ‘girl’ schema is an organised group of concepts which consists of all the knowledge she has of girls and how they look/behave
-at nursery, Beatrix plays mostly with toys that fit with her ‘girl’ schema, such as dolls and the Kitchen
-at home, Beatrix talks mainly about what the girls have been doing as she pays more attention to ‘girl’ behaviour (because she is actively trying to expand her girl schema or in-group knowledge)
-Beatrix talks rarely about what boys do because she disregards information that is not part of her ‘girl’ schema (ie out-group knowledge about boys).
how does SLT suggest that gender development occurs?
SLT claims that behaviour is learned as a result of observing and imitating models, and from experiencing reinforcement
key terms in the social learning theory of gender development:
-direct reinforcement
-differential association
-indirect reinforcement
-identification
-modelling
-mediational processes
definition of direct reinforcement:
children are reinforced (praised) for gender-appropriate behaviour, so
this is more likely to be repeated
definition of differential reinforcement:
the way in which children (boys and girls) are reinforced for different behaviours, causing them to learn gender identity / gender-appropriate behaviours
definition of indirect reinforcement:
-if a child sees another person being reinforced for gender-appropriate
behaviour, they are likely to imitate this behaviour in the hope that they too will receive the reward (vicarious
reinforcement)
definition of identification:
when a child attaches themselves to a (same-gender) model whose qualities they would like to possess for themselves
definition of modelling:
copying a chosen person’s
behaviour
what are the mediational processes?
-attention (noticing behaviour), -retention (remembering behaviour),
-motivation (wanting to repeat behaviour)
-motor reproduction
(being able to do so)
what is learning seen as in SLT?
gender is seen as a social construct - we aren’t born with it, we do not learn it once and then stick to it, but modify our behaviour depending on our age, social situation.
what does the fact that gender is seen as a social construct mean?
we aren’t born with it, we do not learn it once and then stick to it, but modify our behaviour depending on our age, social situation
how does SLT explain changes in acceptable gendered behaviours?
gender being a social construct can explain why society has changed the acceptable gender roles within society
(e.g. women becoming more assertive, men becoming more caring/nurturing)
how does SLT claim that gendered behaviour is learned?
as a result of observing and imitating models, and from experiencing reinforcement
what is a model?
anyone who an individual may identify with, be attracted to, or idolise (parents, peers, celebrities) an individual can learn gender roles from models directly or indirectly
when does direct learning of gendered behaviour occur?
when an individual is directly involved in the reinforcement of
their behaviour
example of direct learning of gendered behaviour:
gender roles and behaviours can be socially learned directly / gender
appropriate (desirable) behaviours are positively reinforced and cross-
gendered (undesirable) behaviours being punished
e.g: if a girl is positively reinforced for putting on makeup whilst
copying her mother’s behaviour, then this is a direct experience
when does indirect learning of gendered behaviour occur?
when an individual does not experience reinforcement first hand but is influenced by vicarious reinforcement
example of indirect learning of gendered behaviour:
models like celebrities and parents can be observed and imitated merely based on what reinforcement/consequences their behaviours lead to
(e.g: if a boy watches his brother being punished for playing with
dolls, then this boy will also learn that he too should not play with dolls - ‘vicarious learning’)
gender is developed by…
(steps)
1) gendered behaviour is developed from experience
2) through socialisation, children learn culturally appropriate gender behaviour
3) children identify with a model (usually one in their immediate environment, e.g. same sex sibling)
who shows gender appropriate behavior
4) the children observe other’s behaviour and how they are rewarded for sex-appropriate behavior
5) children then learn sex-appropriate behaviour
how does punishment relate to the learning of gender appropriate behaviour?
girls and boys are punished for displaying cross-gendered
(undesirable) behaviours
examples:
-boy wearing a dress
-girl being very playful
if a behaviour is repeated often enough it becomes….
internalised → it becomes part of the individual’s identity
what is gender identity in social learning theory?
it isn’t simply one behaviour
→ it is a mixture of all the modelled
behaviour that an individual has been exposed to and that have been imitated and reinforced
steps of the on-going development of gender behaviour:
1 / behaviour is observed
behaviour is displayed by role model considered to be worth imitating – identification
2 / behaviour is imitated
there needs to be self-efficacy – the
belief that behaviour can be imitated
3 / behaviour is reinforced
if the behaviour is punished it won’t be reinforced
4 / behaviour is repeated
provided the outcomes are positive
** 5 / behaviour is internalised**
behavior becomes part of the child’s repertoire of gendered behaviours
strengths of the SLT’s explanation of gender development:
-there is research support from seavey et al for the SLT’s explanation of gender development
-SLT can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour
-fagot (1978) offers research support for SLT
ao3 / strength - there is research support from seavey et al for the SLT’s explanation of gender development
P - there is research support from seavey et al for the SLT’s explanation of gender development
E - they found that when a baby was labelled female, ppts were more likely to use the doll when playing with the child
↳ babies labelled as males were given plastic rings most often
↳ in the no-label condition almost all the participants spontaneously decided on a sex for the baby
L - these findings support the claim that parents use gender role stereotypes to shape their children’s behaviour, adding to the belief that gender is socially learned
ao3 / strength - SLT can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour
P - SLT can explain cultural changes in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour
E - there is less of a clear cut distinction between stereotypically masculine and feminine behaviours compared to the 1950’s, for example / as biology has remained the same, this shift is better explained by SLT than biology
↳ this can be explained by a shift in social expectations and cultural norms that has meant there are new forms of acceptable gender behaviour being acceptable
L - this shows that SLT is an approach that can explain cultural changes in gender behaviour
ao3 / strength - fagot (1978) offers research support for SLT
P -fagot (1978) offers research support for SLT
E - children were observed in their own homes whilst they played with
their parents / researchers found that there was adistinction in the types of behaviours that boys and girls were reinforced or punished for
→ boys were punished for playing with ‘feminine toys’ such as dolls,
and positively reinforced for playing with ‘masculine toys’ such as
trucks and blocks / girls were punished for playing roughly but
positively reinforced for seeking proximity to their parent
L - this supports SLT and demonstrates the role that parents play in shaping gender appropriate behaviours (differential association)
criticism of the SLT’s explanation of gender development:
P - SLT does not provide a holistic explanation of the learning of gendered behaviour
E -the SLT places little emphasis on the influence of genes and
chromosomes and only considers the role of the environment
↳ David Reimer’s case demonstrated that it was not possible to override chromosomal influence
L - perhaps a biosocial approach is more appropriate → innate biological differences that are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations
↳ a biosocial approach is more comprehensive
how can the SLT’s explanation of gender development compare to the psychodynamic approach?
-freud, in agreement with SLT, would accept that same-sex parents
have a key influence in a child’s gender development
-however, the psychodynamic approach would also accuse SLT of focusing too much on conscious mediational processes and of ignoring the importance of the unconscious (psychic determinism vs environmental determinism)
the prevalence of media:
today, individuals are exposed to more media than ever with the rise
of social media, streaming and the variety of devices on which they
can view media
the prevalence of culture:
subcultures are more prevalent than ever before, with groups of people in society following their own beliefs, traditions and celebrations
why are culture and media significant?
the influence of culture and media on gender is a very current topic & can offer some insight into how gender is developed
what is culture?
a large group of people who share the same beliefs, traditions and attitudes
how does culture contribute to the nature/nurture debate?
-cross-cultural research has made valuable contributions to the nature-nurture debate in gender
-the debate addresses whether differences in behavioural traits are
caused by innate or environmental factors
what would universal features suggest about the nature/nurture debate?
universal features (found everywhere) would suggest an innate basis for gender and support the nature view
what would culturally-specific features suggest about the nature/nurture debate?
culturally specific features (found in some places not others) would suggest that gender is learned and support the nurture view
nature’s view of gender:
gender differences result from innate differences between female and male (genes, chromosomes,
nervous system, hormones)
interactionist view of gender:
gender differences are caused by innate tendencies that are modified by environmental factors
nurture’s view of gender:
gender differences result from the different experiences that females
and males have as they develop (learning from family, peers, society)
support for gender being universal through culture:
across most cultures, the sex categories of ‘male’ and ‘female’ are used, which suggests that there is some biological and universal element to gender roles
support for gender being culturally bound:
-different cultures can often have different expectations or beliefs about gender roles, they may differ vastly from each other
-in the Samoan culture, there is a third gender role, biological males who choose to adopt the stereotypically western, feminine roles → this suggests that gender is flexible rather than fixed and that there may be some gender roles and identities that are culture-bound, rather than culturally universal
evidence (strength) for cultural differences:
there is research support for the influence of culture on gender from mead
ao3 / strength - there is research support for the influence of culture on gender from mead
P - there is research support for the influence of culture on gender from mead
E - mead (1935) conducted an overt, participant observation in Papa New Guinea to investigate if there were cultural differences in gender
roles when compared to typical western gender roles - there were distinct gender role differences in the three tribes she studied
→ the males and females of the Arapesh tribe were observed to be nurturing and caring, demonstrating typical feminine roles
→ the males and females of the Mundugumor tribe were observed to be masculine and aggressive, portraying typical masculine behaviours
→ the Tchambuli tribe appeared to have a reversal of western roles, the females of the tribe were more masculine (hunting) & the males of the tribe were more feminine (caring for children)
L - this suggests that culture influences gender roles and gender is flexible
limitations/contradictions of evidence for cultural differences:
-the influence of culture on gender is challenged by research
-cross-cultural research into gender can be criticised for having low internal validity
ao3 / limitation - the influence of culture on gender is challenged by research
P - the influence of culture on gender is challenged by research
E - researchers investigated gender stereotypes across 30 different countries
↳ students in each country were given 300 adjectives (for example, nurturing or aggressive) and asked to separate them into typically male and typically female behaviours
↳ there were high levels of agreement between all countries about what behaviours were considered male and female, with adjectives such as ‘independent’ associated with males, and ‘dependant’ associated with females
L - this suggests that there is a universal pattern in gender roles, supporting the idea that gender roles are biological rather than the result of cultural influence
ao3 / limitation - cross-cultural research into gender can be criticised for having low internal validity
P - cross-cultural research into gender can be criticised for having low internal validity
E - mead’s research into gender relies on the participant observation method, this method is criticised for being intrusive and potentially disruptive to the everyday life of those being studied, both during and after the study has concluded
↳ the presence of a researcher may have been enough to change their usual behaviour consciously or unconsciously
L - this hinders the internal validity of the conclusions drawn about gender roles / researchers may not be measuring what they originally intended to
what is media?
any information that is presented to people via platforms such as newspapers, television, magazines and books
how does media influence stereotypes?
someone exposed to more gender stereotypes in the media is more likely to hold stronger gender stereotypes than those with less exposure
how does media link to SLT?
-individuals are drawn to role models in the media
-their behaviour is observed and internalised by the individual, who may or may not imitate them
examples of stereotypes in the media:
-buffoon stereotype
-action hero stereotype
-nurturer stereotype
what is the buffoon stereotype?
a male is ridiculed for being emotional, sensitive and other stereotypical feminine behaviours
how does the buffoon stereotype affect male behaviour?
a young male who is watching this may vicariously learn that if he behaves like the ‘buffoon’, then he
will be ridiculed and that these feminine behaviours should not be part of the male gender identity
what is the action hero stereotype?
a male character is rewarded or glorified for performing stereotypical masculine behaviours
how does the action hero stereotype affect male behaviour?
a young male observer would be likely to learn that stereotypically male behaviours are acceptable gender behaviours for him
what is the nurturer stereotype?
females are shown to be a nurturer and the most emotional and neurotic parent
how does the nurturer stereotype affect female behaviour?
girls vicariously learn that these behaviours (behaving emotionally and as a nurturer) are typical and acceptable for girls to perform
what does observing others do gender-appropriate behaviours do? (other than reinforcing them)
it increases the child’s belief that
they are capable of carrying out (reproducing) such behaviours
in the future (self-efficacy)
strengths of the role of media in the learning gendered behaviour:
-there is research support for the impact of media on gender
stereotypes (williams)
-there is research support for the claims that exposure of children to media, exposed them to gender stereotypes (bee)
-an advantage of research into the influence of media, are the positive implications it has led to
ao3 / strength - there is research support for the impact of media on gender stereotypes (williams)
P - there is research support for the impact of media on gender stereotypes (williams)
E - williams conducted a study in canada wherein they looked at the effect of the introduction of TV in a town on gender stereotyping
↳ she compared the town to a nearby town that already had TV and had had higher levels of gender stereotyping behaviour
↳ gender stereotyping behaviour increased in the town that originally had no TV over the course of the study, eventually matching the levels of the other town
L - this shows that media is influential on gender roles and that
exposure to media can increase the power of gender stereotypes
ao3 / strength - there is research support for the claims that exposure of children to media, exposed them to gender stereotypes (bee)
P - there is research support for the claims that exposure of children to media, exposed them to gender stereotypes (bee)
E - bee conducted a content analysis of children’s books and adverts,
investigating the number of gender stereotypes that they expose children to.
↳ bee found that books often contained gender-stereotypical characters (e.g: female nurse and male policeman)
↳ the adverts were also found
to be differentiated based on gender stereotypes, adverts aimed at boys were loud and fast-paced / adverts aimed at girls were slower
and gentler
L - these findings suggest that media is exposing children to information about what is and what is not stereotypically acceptable for their gender
ao3 / strength - an advantage of research into the influence of media, are the positive implications it has led to
P - an advantage of research into the influence of media, are the positive implications it has led to
E - changes to media have derived as a result of research conclusions from studies like bee and williams / TV and other forms of media are increasingly using counter stereotypes to promote a more balanced view of gender roles and behaviours
↳ e.g: research shows that more modern disney princesses (Moana) are less stereotypically feminine than traditional disney princesses
(Snow White) → these change will positively impact the gender development and career aspirations of girls and boys, promoting the message that anyone can achieve
anything, regardless of gender
L - this suggests that research into media and gender can lead to vital changes in what children are exposed to when developing their gender identity & show that media has a significant effect on gender development
