gender, ethnicity, class

Question 1

gender & crime

chivalry thesis

Answer 1

> > > officials in criminal justice system (men) likely to let women suspects them or punish them less severely
men socialised to be softer & protective to females

> > > women likely to be given cautions & given pre-court sanction (penalty notice) than taken to court
women less sent to prison when convicted - even manslaughter
30 % male cautioned - female 47%
73& female & 54% male given fines for guilty motoring offences

GRAHAM + BOWLING&raquo_space;> self report offending - males likely to commit offences
»> less involved in serious crimes

SMART = women commit less crimes - most seen trivial nature = unworthy of research
»> sociology POLLAK = police less likely to record female crimes
»> men socialised into protecting women
»> assure women’s criminality being harmless & good & in need of protection criminology dominated by males

> > > underecoding of fmale crime - lenient to female
women good at hiding cfrimes - deceive men -mislead

Question 2

pollak

gender & crime

Answer 2

POLLAK = police less likely to record female crimes
»> men socialised into protecting women
»> assure women’s criminality being harmless & good & in need of protection
»> nearly all offences of shoplifting POLLAK = police less likely to record female crimes
»> men socialised into protecting women
»> assure women’s criminality being harmless & good & in need of protection abortions = women
»> unreported crimes committed by female domestic servants
»> womens role gave opportunity POLLAK = police less likely to record female crimes
»> men socialised into protecting women
»> assure women’s criminality being harmless & good & in need of protection hide crimes (poison)

Question 3

criticism of female & crime

Answer 3

JONES&raquo_space;> no real evidence female domestic servants commit crimes or women better at hiding crimes

HEINDENSOHN»» most men do shoplifting
»> concealment of menstruation not universal & changed social norms
»> stereotypes of women & unwilling to attribute male crime to biological predisposition to aggression & violence

Question 4

example of chivalry thesis

Answer 4

oxford medical student - WOODWARS spared jail due to promising medical career
»> history of drug & alcohol abuse
»> stabbed boyfriend
»> judge praised her determination to overcome addiction & career in medicine
»> actions seen as judgement of era = not threat to society

Question 5

against chivalry thesis

Answer 5

1. STEWARD»> home office research found bail/ remanded in custody explained in terms of seriousness of offence
   »> home office impose more severe sentences on women for less serious offences
2. BUCKLE & FARRINGTON = shoplifting - female offenders match nearly male stats
   »> female likely prosecuted - couurt found women not leniently sentenced for serious offences
3. HEINDENSOHN = double deviance - judged for deviant act & not following society norms values / expectations of women
   »> MC women least likely criminal

Question 6

bias in criminal justice
dobash
walkate
smart

Answer 6

1 SMART = rape trials- celebrate male sexual needs & female sexual capriciousness
»> judges think women & small boys likely be untruthful & invent stories
»> judges think women dont always mean ‘no’

2. WALKATE = female victims ends up on trial & not male suspects
   »> courts regard single moms, criminal record - punks
   »> those in childcare, supported= lack responsibility & credibility
   »> rape trials see view from males’ POV = accept they unable to restrain sexual desires
3. DOBASH & DOBASH = men treated leniently in domestic violence cases
   »> police unlikely to arrest if male used violence against wife
   »> feminist campaigners make domestic violence more serious = police set up domestic violence unit to monitor police dealings

Question 7

bias in criminal justice

heidensohn

Answer 7

4. HEIDENSOHN&raquo_space;> women treated harshly when deviate from societal norms of female sexuality
   »> sexually promiscious girls likely taken into care
   »> criminal justice influenced by attitudes to gender - see females as virgin or whores
   »> conventional definitions of masculinity & feminity
   »> mens’ offences seen as aggression / greed = likely fined or imprisoned as not central to family life
   »> women less deviant than men = hard to understand criminal activity
   »> court likely to order female offenders to find psychological meanings
   »> give probation instead of fine 0 disadvantage women & reinforce ideologies about genders
5. CARLEN = most women go to prison less likely be sentenced for serious crime
   »> likely to assess them as wives/mother/daughter
   »> if single/divorced/children in care = likely to go prison
   »> unlikely to imprison if good mothers & punish childless women
   »> pregnant women sent prison for children to born in desirable surroundings

Question 8

sex role theoy

Answer 8

1. PARSONS = female carry expressive role to care for children & care for husband’s emotional needs
   »> internalises values as caring & empathy - reduce chance of anomie
   »> women attached to families & communities - bond held together relations
   »> boys taught to be bold , rough, tough = delinquent - masculinity internalized during adolscent
   »> women take on dual burden & triple shift - reduce chance
   »> subculture members & gangs - learn traitsto assert masculine status
   »> no father role model

Question 9

why women commit crimes

Answer 9

1. LOMBROSO & FERRERO - physiological causes
   »> compare brain & skull, jaws, thighs of prostitutes & normal women
   »> physical abnormalities in female criminals = not true, biological criminals, broke law occasionally, unserious
   »> women deficient moral sense & inclined to be vengeful, jealousy - neutralized by piety, maternity, passion, weakness unintelligence
2. ADIER = liberation; women in trad male dominated crimes (robbery & embezzlement)
   »> women take male social roles in work & criminal world
3. CHESNEY-LIND = poor maginalized women more in crime
   »> not with liberation but activities by females like prostitutions

Question 10

why women commit crime

Answer 10

4. CARLEN = lower social class group criminalized
   »> control theory - assume human naturally rone to crimes & wicked nor virtuous or conformity
   »> humans rational & turn to crime when benefits lost
   »> WC female promised with rewards from work & family
   »> class deals = offer materials
   »> gender deals = offer psychological & material rewards - love of male breadwinner
   »> rewards not available/ persuaded its real/ worthy = deal breaks down & crimes
   »> addictions - quest for excitement & in care homes
   »> poor = reject class & gender deals
   »> try find legitimate ways to earn living - YTS; unemployed after trainin
   learnt qualification in prison not useful in futuee
   »> crimes = resist injustice & try solve problems of poverty
   »> lmore supervised than males
   »> abuse by partner/ fathers
   »> in care = lost bond attachments

Question 11

female conformity

Answer 11

1. HEIDENSOHN = being housewife restrict women w limiting opportunities for crimes
   »> domesticity as detention & montior child
   »> persuade them to carry on or fail as mother/wife
   »> wife battering = assertion of patriarchy power
   »> men use power money to control behaviour
   »> girls less freedom outside & more houswork
   (home)
   (public) - women not go out = fear of attack
   »> rape fear - conscious process of intimidation by men
   »> limit behaviour to reduce being labelled as slag/bitch
   »> ideology of seperate spheres = see women’s place in home
   »> e.g informal control of daughters in asian girls - honour, shame in family reputation
   (work) - controlled by male superior hierarchy
   »> workers organisations by men
   »> women sexual harassment at work
2. CARLEN = women WC not enjoy benefits of women liberation
   »> control theory - little success little to lose turning to crime
   »> class deal = sacrifice personal freedom & working hard to earn enough to access consumer goods& enjoyable leisure ; women had no qualifications experience to hold good job > poverty & unemployed = no incentive to conform to keep job
   »> gender deals - accept marriage, relation with men for security, happiness, fufilment with family life
   »> patriarchy ideology & family rules

Question 12

masculinity & crime

1heindensohn

Answer 12

1. MESSERSCHMIDT = Rejects biological accounts & no universal truths
   »> people active agents & not just act roles they learnt but make choices on how to behave
   »> believes social structure exists through social action = action needed to reproduce social structures
   »> patriarchy structures change if gender behave diff & share work
   »> structures constrain & enable to act in ways
   »> normative masculinity = socially approved ideas of what real male is - defines through diff & desires= prized that men struggle to live up to expectations
   »> masculinity not natural but males only achieve as accomplishment

> > > gender divison of laour created roles - MC men get knowledge & rational to hold ob
blackmen ecluded from jobs - more white MC women in jobs
men control economic/religious/political instituions
devalue homosexuality & heterosexual is hallmark of identity

> > > hegemonic masculinities - dominant & valued - subordinates women & benefits over power
crime - social proactive as resource
motivation to male crime = show masculine

> > > white MC boys enjoy educational success; follow rules & authority but outside show characteristics repressed
controlled, rational gender action to success
outside - against MC norms & asset masculinity
> white WC boys less success nor masculinity in school
unable to access hegemonicmasculinity in work/school = turn to violence to express anger

Real men in steets = pimping, control prostitution, loud, aggessive show success by consumer goods
»> work - assert y resist authority managers, sexual harasses seem superior & heterosxuality
»> being amoral / ambitious = rwarded w successful career
» do anything for profit e.g ford car prone to blames in collison & any died but continued production
»> corporate leaders use power to offer promotion/ threat of dismissal/ for seual favours

Question 13

criticism of heidensohn

JEFFERSON

Answer 13

JEFFERSON&raquo_space;> fail to explain why some commit crime than others e.g black
»> over etermined view of men = assume all socialized to express
»> stereotypes & negative views = no options for crime in fight against oppressive gov v

Question 14

crime & masculinities

Answer 14

1. Collier;
   e.g hamilton shot & killed primary school - media show him as evil, monster, outside = single & not married
   »> lack of crime in area = stable due to heterosexual families
   »> repressed homo & interests fo children
   »> unable to express masculinity
   »> needed control & direct boys to influence behaviour
   »> society see boys outside heterosexual families as problematic
   »> try fight label of pervert & express masculinity by acting as authority to boys in clubs
   »> interests in guns - tough ,rough
   »> murder = means of taking control
   »> Collier reject media & dont believe he’s pedo but insecure & lack manliness

Question 15

masculinity & crime

Answer 15

[WINLOW]= badfellas ; sunderland deindustrialisation, trade decline of heavy material indsutries
»> more service & leisure sector work; night time economy - prostitution, nightcub
»> globalisation - hip hop music, usa black inner city culture & criminal networks
»> prove masculinity by labor = show prowess & keep wife, family
»> crime & violence way to get material success in get trappings associated with high status; fashionable clothes & cars
»> no opportunities for making living out of crime
»> conflict subcultures arise - petty crime & violence for status
»> unskilled WC men no full time jobs & undermine breadwinner role
»> criminal subcultures to make living & status

> > > workingas doorman - paid to maintain order & used to get int ocrime = sell drugs, import alcohols
use physical prowess, use of force to control customers & show masculine status
use bodily status to earn living- body build & strong physique = look intimidating to discourage

Question 16

working class criminality causes

Answer 16

1. MERTON = crime increased strain (or gap) between society’s success goals (achieving material wealth) & available opportunities to achieve those goals through legitimate means =‘anomie’.
   »> fewer opportunities to achieve material success through legitimate means =innovative cultural responses for material success through criminal means

2. Cohen -cultural factors (values & status) rather than material factors in explaining working class crime.
>>> strove to emulate middle-class values & aspirations, lacked means to achieve success.= status frustration: a sense of personal failure and inadequacy.
>>> resolved their frustration by rejecting socially acceptable values & patterns of acceptable behaviour. >>> boys going through the same experiences, =banding together & forming delinquent subcultures.
>>> delinquent subculture reversed the norms & values of mainstream culture, offering positive rewards (status) to those most deviant.
>>> in school looked down by others & failed academic success 
>>> Status was gained by being malicious, intimidating others, breaking school rules or the law & trouble.

3. CLOWARD & OHLIN - illegitmate opportunity structures - but opportunities in organised crime with illegitimate means = criminal subcultures
   »> double failures not found success legitimately in conflict or criminal subcultures = retreatists
4. LEA & YOUNG = feeling deprived - relative deprivation = turn to crime when expectations not med/ rewarded
   »> marginalisation being outside mainstream society - more crimes
   »> groups made subcultures to deal with it & develop collective criminal response

Question 17

working class criminality causes

Answer 17

1. Cicourel=  meanings held by police officers &juvenile officers that explained why most delinquents come from working class backgrounds, & process of defining a young person as a delinquent was complex, involving mainly two stages of interactions based on sets of meanings held by the participants.
>>> 1 stage is the decision by the police to stop & interrogate an individual.based on meanings held by the police of what is ‘strange’, ‘unusual’ and ‘wrong’. >>> depends on where the behaviour is taking place & how police perceive the individual(s).
>>> depend on where the behaviour is taking place, for example an inner city, If a young person has a demeanour like that of a ‘typical delinquent’ then the police are more likely to both interrogate and arrest that person.
>>> 2 Stage  young person is handed juvenile delinquent officer. - officer picture of a ‘typical delinquent’ in his mind. 
>>> Factors associated with a typical delinquent include  dishevelled appearance, having poor posture, speaking in slang etc.
>>> middle class delinquents arrested less likely to be charged = not fit the picture of a ‘typical delinquent’. >>> parents able to present themselves as respectable & reasonable people from a nice neighbourhood and co-operate fully with the juvenile officers, assuring them that their child is truly remorseful.
>>> accidentally strayed from the path of righteousness just the once and having a real chance of reforming.

2. Marxism - rimogenic Capitalism
   »> Capitalism encourages i self-interest, materialistic consumers, = unrealistic & unattainable lifestyle.
   »> Gordon - Capitalist societies are ‘dog eat dog societies’ each encouraged to look out own interests before others,
   »> learn that it is acceptable to harm others in process.
3. Bauman points =super wealthy effectively segregate themselves from the wealthy, through living in exclusive gated communities and travelling in private jets and armoured vehicles with security entourages. If people can afford it, they move to a better area, and send their children to private schools. However, this doesn’t prevent the poor and the rich from living side by side.

Marxists argue that the visible evidence of massive inequalities give people at the bottom a sense of injustice, a sense of anger and a sense of frustration that they are not sharing in the wealth being flaunted in front of them (the flaunting is the point is it not?) As a result, Capitalism leads to a flourishing of economic crime as well as violent street crime.

Question 18

working class criminality causes

Answer 18

4. Chambliss even economic crime ‘’represents rational responses to the competitiveness and inequality of life in capitalist societies”.
   »> Drug dealers see themselves as innovative entrepreneurs. internalised =desire be successful, break law is a minor risk.

5. MILLER =  lower class in usa develop culture/ way of life - passed down from generations
>> culture began from response to low pay & working class jobs then develop life of own, independent work that each members did 
>>> focal conerns = issues in culture influence decision making; toughness, smartness - bring status in wc culture 
>>> focal concerns lead to trouble w law 

5. MURRAY - undeclass theory

Question 19

class bias, street crime, criminal justice

Answer 19

CHAMBLISS»> 2 juvenile gangs ; 1 ‘saints’ from mc background & parents - pillars of community whie ‘roughneck’ groups were WC
»> saints got away with more serious offences like drink drive
»> roughnecks likely in minor assaults- lanelled due to pre existing stereotypes of class

REINER»> police discretion vital to influence which law breakers likely arrested
»> choose to focus on those who fit stereotype of criminal
»> WC - common n predatory street offences, crimes of poor = occupy police attention than hidden crimes

CROALL >>> working class homes subject to more intense policing & crimes done = usual suspects of WC focus 
>>> taken to court - WC risk of reoffending = likely sent to prison

Question 20

CORPORATE & WHITE COLLAR CRIMES

Answer 20

1. corporate crimes = offences by large companies/ individuals acting on behalf to directly benefit company than self
2. white collar = commited by mc individuals who abuse work position for personal gains at expense of workers, gov, clients

> > > e,g white collar crime = crimes against NHS by doctors, pharmacists, dentists who falsify prescriptions & patient records to claim millions of pounds more than they entitled - GP made 700k for writing fake prescriptions

Question 21

corporate crimes

SLAPPER & TOMBS

Answer 21

1. paperwork & non compliance - correct permits license not obtained, companies fail to comply with regulations
2. green crimes = damage to env by deliberate or negligence
3. manufacturing offences - incorrect labelling or misrepresentation of products & false advertising, producing unsafe articles, counterfeit goods
4. labour law violations - neglect health safety regulations, fail to pay legally min wage, conceal industrial diseases
5. unfair trade ractices = false ads, anti competitve practices like price fixing/ illegally obtain info on rival businesses
   e.g supermarkets fined for fixed price of milk - cost consumers more than would paid without
6. financial offences = ta evasion or concealment of losses n debts
   e.g amazon fail to pay fair shares of taxes, use legal offshore centres where lower taxes in uk
   » some western corporations avoid laws n regulations by moving production to less developed poor countries

> > > e.g white collar crime ; one in 3construction sites put lives of workers at risk &operated below acceptable standard
inspectors felt possibility that life be lost or ruined through serious injury. - appalled at disregard for basic health safety precautions on refurbishment sites
. Basic safety precautions being flouted. over half of workers died on construction sites

Question 22

under representation of white collar & corporate crimes

Answer 22

1. hidden from view & hard to detect = crimes invisible as happen in work &v offenders appear to e doing normal jobs = justified present at scene
   »> cover up & networks of influence by powerful businesses = more corporate crimes never discovered or only to an extent
2. without personal or individual victims- less obvious personal harms & victims impersonal like company
3. benefit both parties e.g bribery & corruption for business or personal reasons - gain something, in trouble if found = conceal it
4. hard to investigate like business, comp fraud = require skill or expert knowledge which police lack & long time to discover
5. lack of awareness that crime committed - not reported; victim lack expertise to know whether they are being misled/ defrauded - unaware of harm
   »> pollution, food adulteration, false description of goods, scams, frauds
6. crimes detected often not prosecuted or dealt with as criminals; only minor punishments e.g crimes embezzlement from customer accounts in bank rarely reported to protect interests/reputation of institution = avoid loss of public confience
7. if reported- offenders better chance of being found NOT guilty; judges hold stereotype crime is mainly WC than affluent, educated, respectable MC people
   »> suspect often same b/g as judges - appear plausible, honest to juries = ess guilty