Gender differences in achievement

Question 1

What are the 4 external Factors that lead to the gender differences in achievement ?

Answer 1

-The impacts of Feminism
-Changes in the Family
-Changes in Women’s position
-Girl’s changing ambitions

Question 2

How does feminism lead girls to do better in education ?

Answer 2

Feminism has raised women’s expectations and self esteem.

Question 3

McRobbie’s study that helps to explain improvements in girls educational achievement ?

Answer 3

McRobbie’s study of girls magazines . in the 1970s they emphasized the importance of getting married and not being left on the shelf , whereas nowadays , they contain images of assertive , independent women , these changes encouraged by feminism affect girls ambitions and self image with regard to their families and careers which helps explain the improvements in girls achievement

Question 4

What are 4 examples of how the family has changed since the 1970’s ?

Answer 4

There have been major changes in the family since the 1970’s , these include ;
-An increase in the divorce rate ,
-An increase in Cohabitation and a decrease in the number of first marriages ,
-An increase in the number of lone parent families ,
-Smaller families.

Question 5

How do the changes in the family since the 1970’s affect girls attitudes towards education ?

Answer 5

Changes in the family affect girls attitudes towards education in a number of ways . for example , increased number of female headed lone parent families may mean more women need to take out the breadwinner role . This in turn creates a new adult role model for girls - the financial independent woman . To achieve this independence , women need well paid jobs and therefore good qualifications . Likewise , increases in divorce rate may suggest to girls it is unwise to rely on a husband to be their provider which may encourage girls to get their own qualifications in order to make a living.

Question 6

What are 4 important changes in womens employment in recent decades ?

Answer 6

There have been important changes in women’s employment in recant decades , such as ;
-The 1970 Equal pay act which makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value , and the 1975 sex discrimination act outlaws discrimination at work.
-Since 1975 , the pay gap between men and women has halved from 30% to 15%.
-The proportion of women in employment has risen for 53% in 1971 to 67% in 2013 .
-Some women are now breaking through the glass ceiling - the invisible barrier that keeps them out of high level professional jobs

Question 7

What is the purpose of the 1970 equal pay act ?

Answer 7

The 1970 equal pay act makes it illegal to pay women less than men for work of equal value

Question 8

How has the pay gap changed from 1975 to present ?

Answer 8

Since 1975 , the pay gap between men and women had halved from 30% to 15 %

Question 9

How has the proportion of women in employment changed from 1971 to 2013 ?

Answer 9

The proportion of women in employment has risen from 53% in 1971 . to 67% in 2013.

Question 10

How have the changes in women’s employment led to girls educational success ?

Answer 10

Changes in women’s employment has encouraged girls to see their future in terms of paid work rather than as housewives , greater career opportunities and better pay for women and the role models that successful career women offer , provide an incentive for girls to gain qualifications

Question 11

Sharpe’s study that supports the view that girls changing ambitions are leading to their educational success ?

Answer 11

Sharpe interviewed girls in the 1970s and in the 1990s and saw a major shift in the ways girls saw their future.
in the 1970s girls had low aspirations , they believed educational success was unfeminine and that appearing to ambitious would be considered unattractive . They gave their priorities as love , marriage , husbands , children , jobs , careers.
By the 1990’s girls ambitions had changed and they had different order of their priorities - careers and being able to support themselves.
Sharpe found that the girls were now more likely to see their future as independent women with a career rather than being dependent on their husband and their income.

Question 12

Why does Reay argue some working class girls still continue to have gender stereotyped aspirations for marriage and children and expect to go into traditional low paid women’s work ?

Answer 12

Reay argues working class girls still have gender stereotyped aspirations and this reflects the reality of the girls class position , their limited aspirations reflect their limited job opportunities.

Question 13

What are 6 internal factors that lead to gender differences in achievement ?

Answer 13

-Equal Opportunity Policies ,
-Positive role models in schools ,
-GCSE and coursework ,
-Teacher attention ,
-Challenging stereotypes in the curriculum ,
-Selection and league tables.

Question 14

What are 2 well known equal opportunity policies and what is their aim ?

Answer 14

GIST ( Girls into science and technology )and WISE (women into science and engineering ) are well known equal opportunity policies and encourage girls to pursue careers in these non traditional areas

Question 15

How was the introduction of the national curriculum , an equal opportunity policy ?

Answer 15

The introduction of the national curriculum in 1988 removed one source of gender inequality by making girls and boys study mostly the same subjects , which was not the case previously.

Question 16

What is meant by more positive role models in schools for girls ?

Answer 16

There has been an increase in the proportion of female head teachers and teachers , these women in senior positions may act as role models for girls , by showing that girls can achieve positions of importance and gives them non traditional goals to aim for.

Question 17

What did Gorard argue was the main reason for the gender gap in achievement and what evidence was there for this ?

Answer 17

Gorard found that the gender gap in achievement was fairly constant from 1975 to 1989, when it increased sharply, this was the year in which GCSEs were introduced, bring in with it coursework as a major part in most subjects.

Question 18

Why do mistsos and Browne argue girls are more successful At coursework therefore widening gender gap in achievement?

Answer 18

Mitsos and Browne conclude that girls are more successful in coursework because they are more conscientious and better organised . Girls ;
- spend more time on their work
- take more care with the way their work is presented
- are better at meeting deadlines
- better at bringing the right equipment and materials to lessons

Question 19

How do oral exams benefit girls and therefore widen the gender gap in achievement ?

Answer 19

More use of oral exams benefits girls because of their generally better developed language skills

Question 20

What is the criticism by Elwood that coursework doesn’t affect the gender gap in achievement that much ?

Answer 20

Elwood argues that although coursework has some influence , it is unlikely to be the cause of gender gap because exams have much more influence than coursework on final grades

Question 21

What did French find when analysing classroom interaction around teacher attention?

Answer 21

French analysed classroom interaction, and found boys received more attention because of behaviour.

Question 22

What did Francis find out about teacher attention ?

Answer 22

Francis found while boys got more attention, they were disciplined more harshly and felt picked on by teachers who tended to have low expectations of them.

Question 23

What did Swann find out about gender differences in communication styles and now this leads girls todo better than boys ?

Answer 23

Swann found gender differences in communication styles, boys dominate in whole class discussions whereas girls prefer pair work and group work and are better at listening and cooperating. This may help explain why teachers respond more positively to girls compared to boys who they see as disruptive . This may lead to the self fulfilling prophecy in which successful interactions with teachers promote girls self esteem and raise their achievement levels

Question 24

How does Weiner argue teachers challenge stereotypes in the curriculum and how does this lead to a better achievement for girls ?

Answer 24

Weiner argues teachers have challenged stereotypes in the curriculum, such as ensuring sexist images are removed from learning materials. This may help achievement by presenting them with more positive images of what women can do.

Question 25

How does Jackson argue the introduction of league tables has improved opportunities for girls?

Answer 25

Jackson argues girls are more attractive to schools, whereas low achieving boys are not , this Tends to create a self fulfilling prophecy - because girls are more likely to be recruited by good schools.

Question 26

Why does slee argue boys are less attractive to schools ?

Answer 26

Slee argues boys are less attractive to schools because they are more likely to suffer from behavioural difficulties and are 4 times more likely to be excluded as a result, boys are seen as liability students - obstacles to the school improving its league table scores

Question 27

What is the liberal feminist view on girls achievements?

Answer 27

Liberal feminists celebrate the progress made so far in improving achievement and believe that further progress will be made by continuing development of equal opportunity policies encouraging positive role models and overcoming sexist attitudes and stereotypes.

Question 28

What is the radical feminist view on girls achievement?

Answer 28

Radical feminists take a more critical view, while only recognise girls are achieving more, they emphasise that the system remains patriarchal. And conveys a clear message that it is still a mans world for example;
- sexual harassment of girls continues in schools.
-Education still limits girls’ subject choices and career options
-Although more male headteachers male teachers are still more likely to he headteachers

Question 29

What are the 3 identities working class girls adopted to gain symbolic capital from their peers identified by Archer ?

Answer 29

• Hyper heterosexual feminine identity
• having a boyfriend
• being loud.

Question 30

What does archer mean by hyper heterosexual identities.?

Answer 30

Hyper heterosexual identities refer to girls investing considerable time, effort and money into constructing desirable and glamorous hyper heterosexual, feminine identities.for example, one girl spent all of the £40 a week she earned babysitting on her appearance

Question 31

How did the girls hyper heterosexual identities bring them conflict with the school ?

Answer 31

The girls hyper heterosexual identities brought them conflict with the school such as were often punished for having the wrong appearance eg too much jewellery , wrong clothing or too much makeup on etc. teachers saw the girls participation with their appearance as a distraction that prevented them from engaging with eduction

Question 32

Although girls having a boyfriend brought them symbolic capital , what was the problem of it ?

Answer 32

Girls having boyfriends got in the way of school work and lowered the girls aspirations . This included losing interest in going to university or studying masculine subjects such as science or maths or in gaining a professional career . Instead these girls aspired to settle down , have children and work locally in working class feminine jobs such as childcare

Question 33

How did the being loud identity archer identified lead to negative interactions with teachers ?

Answer 33

Some working class girls adopted loud feminine identities that often led them to be outspoken , independent and assertive for example they would question teachers authority . This failed to conform to the schools stereotype of the ideal pupil feminine identity , the girls behaviour led to conflict with teachers who misinterpreted their behaviour as aggressive

Question 34

What was the working class dilemma ?

Answer 34

Working class girls are faced with a dilemma ;
- either gain symbolic capital from their peers by conforming to hyper heterosexual feminine identity
- or gain educational capital by rejecting their working class identity and conforming to the schools middle class notions of a respectable , ideal female pupil

Question 35

What did Evan’s find out about successful working class girls?

Answer 35

Evan’s found working class girls wanted to go to university to increase their earning power, however this power was not for themselves but to help their families. ‘ caring is a crucial part of the working class’s identities

Question 36

What are 2 external factors that lead boys to underachieve ?

Answer 36

• Boy’s literacy
• globalisation and the decline of traditional male jobs

Question 37

What are 3 internal factors that lead boys to underachieve ?

Answer 37

• Feminisation of education
• shortage of male primary school teachers
• laddish subcultures

Question 38

What are the 2 reasons for boy’s poor literacy and language skills?

Answer 38

• Parents spend less time reading to their sons, and mainly mothers who do the reading to young children, thus reading is seen as a feminine activity
• boys leisure pursuits, such as football, do little to help develop their language and communication skills by contrast girls tend to have a bedroom culture centred on staying in and talking to friends.

Question 39

What do mitsos and Browne claim globalisation and Decline in traditional male jobs leads to ?

Answer 39

Mitsos and Browne claim that the decline in male employment opportunities has led to an identity crisis for men, many boys now believe that they have little prospect of getting a proper job, this undermines their motivation and self esteem so they give up trying to get qualifications.

Question 40

How does Sewell argue education being feminised leads to boys under - achievement?

Answer 40

Sewell claims boys fall behind because education has become feminised, schools don’t nurture masculine traits such as competitiveness and leadership instead they celebrate qualities more closely associated with girls. Sewell also sees coursework as a major cause of gender differences in achievement, he argues some coursework should be replaced with final exams and a greater emphasis is placed on outdoor adventure in the curriculum.

Question 41

How does shortage of male primary teachers lead to boys underachieving?

Answer 41

Culture of primary school has become feminised as a result of being staffed by female teachers, who are unable to control boys behaviour.in this view male teachers are better able to impose the strict discipline boys need in order to concentrate

Question 42

What is a critic by Francis that lack of male teachers leads to boys underachievement ?

Answer 42

Francis found 2 thirds of 7 to 8 year olds believed the gender of their teacher didn’t matter.

Question 43

What is read’s criticism that the lack of male teachers leads boys to. Underachieve ?

Answer 43

Read is critical of the claims that the culture of primary schools are becoming feminised and that only male teachers can exert firm discipline that boys need to achieve.

Question 44

What are the 2 types of language/discourse that read found from studying the type of language teachers use to express their disapproval of pupils work and behaviour ?

Answer 44

• Disciplinarian discourse - the teacher’s authority is made explicit and visible eg shouting
• liberal discourse - the teachers authority is implicit and invisible, the teacher speaks to the pupil as is they were an adult and expects them to be kind, sensible and respectful of the teacher.

Question 45

What discourse described by read is associated with male and female teachers gut now is this incorrect according to Read ?

Answer 45

Disciplinarian discourse - masculinity
Liberal discourse - femininity.
Read found that most teachers , female as well as male used a supposedly masculine disciplinarian discourse to control their pupils behaviour

Question 46

What did Francis find about laddish subcultures leading to boys underachievement ?

Answer 46

Francis found boys were more concerned than girls about being labelled by peers as swots because this label is more of a threat to their masculinity than it is to girls femininity.

Question 47

What does ringrose (feminist) argue about how boys underachieving has contributed to a moral panic?

Answer 47

Ringrose argues the moral panic reflects a fear that underachieving working class boys will grow up to become a dangerous unemployable underclass that threatens social stability.

Question 48

What does Osler argue the focus on underachieving boys has led to?

Answer 48

Osier notes that the focus on underachieving boys has led to a neglect of girls. This is partly because girls often disengage from school quietly,by contrast, boys disengagement often takes the form of public displays of laddish masculinity that attracts attention from teachers and policy makers

Question 49

How are gendered subject choices more noticeable after 16?

Answer 49

There are big differences in entries for A level subjects, with boys opting for maths and physics whereas girls choosing subjects such as sociology, English and languages, these differences are mirrored into university.

Question 50

Girls are more likely to pick options such as sociology what policy does this show isn’t working very well ?

Answer 50

This calls into question the effectiveness of policies such as wise and gist aimed at encouraging girls to take up subjects such as physics

Question 51

How are vocational courses gender stereotyped?

Answer 51

Gender segregation is very noticeable feature of vocational training for.example only one in 100 childcare apprentices is a boy.

Question 52

What are 4 explanations of gender differences in subject choices?

Answer 52

• Gender role socialisation
• gendered subject images
• gender identity and peer pressure
• gendered career opportunities.

Question 53

What is gender role socialisation?

Answer 53

Gender role socialisation is the process of learning the behaviour expected of males and females in society.

Question 54

What did Norman find about how early socialisation shapes children’s gender identity’s?

Answer 54

Norman notes from an early age, boys and girls are dressed differently given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities which reinforces gender stereotypes.

Question 55

How does Bryne argue schools play an important part in shaping children’s gender identity?

Answer 55

Bryne shows that teachers encourage boys to be tough and show initiative and not to be wear or behave like sissies, whereas teachers encourage girls to be quiet, helpful, clean and tidy.

Question 56

How do Murphy and Elwood show gender differences in socialisation lead girls and boys to develop different reading tastes which impacts gendered subject choices.?

Answer 56

As A result of differences in socialisation, boys and girls develop different tastes in reading which Murphy and Elwood show lead to different subject choices. Boys read information texts so like science etc. Whereas girls like to read stories about people which explains why girls prefer subjects such as English

Question 57

What is meant by gender domain?

Answer 57

Gender domain means the tasks and activities that boys and girls see as male or female territory and therefore as relevant to themselves eg caring for a rich child falls within the female gender domain, children are more confident when engaging in tasks that they see as part of their own gender domain. Eg boys more confident when talking about cars compared to talking about cooking

Question 58

How do Browne and Ross argue children’s beliefs about gender domains are shaped by ?

Answer 58

Browne and Ross argue that children’s beliefs about gender domains are shaped by their early experiences and the expectations of adults.

Question 59

What are 3 reasons Kelly argues science is seen as a boy subject?

Answer 59

• Science teachers are more likely to be men
• the examples teachers use and those in textbooks often draw on boys rather than girls interests
• in science lessons boys dominate the laboratory, acting as if it is theirs.

Question 60

How does single sex schooling impact gendered subject images.?

Answer 60

Pupils who attend single sex schools tend to hold less stereotyped subject images and make less traditional subject choices.

Question 61

How does Leonard argue single sex schooling impacts gendered subject images compared to mixed schools?

Answer 61

Leonard found that compared to pupils in mixed schools, girls in an all girls School were more likely to take maths and science A levels, while boys in an all boys school were more likely go take English and languages.

Question 62

How does gender identity and peer pressure impact subject choices?

Answer 62

Subject choice can be influenced by peer pressure. Other boys and girls may apply pressure to an individual is they disapprove of his or her choice. For example boys tend to opt out of music and dance because such activities fall out of their gender domain and so are likely to attract a negative response from peers.

Question 63

What did paechter find about gender identity and peer pressure when choosing to do sport or not?

Answer 63

Paechter found that because pupils see sport as mainly within the male gender domain, girls who are sporty have to cope with an image that contradicts the conventional family stereotype, this may explain why girls are more likely than boys to opt out of sport.

Question 64

What does lack of peer pressure in a single sex school impact gendered subject images?

Answer 64

Absence of peer pressure from the opposite sex may explain why girls in single sex schools are more likely to choose traditional boy subjects.

Question 65

How are careers gender stereotyped and how does this affect what jobs boys and girls feel are acceptable .?

Answer 65

Jobs tend to be sex typed as men’s or women’s, women’s jobs often involve work similar to that performed by housewives such as childcare and nursing.this sex typing of occupations affects boys and girls ideas about what kind of jobs are acceptable for their gender , if boys get the message that nursery nurses are female then they will be less likely to opt for a course in childcare

Question 66

What are 6 different ways in which pupils experiences in school help them to construct and reinforce their gender and sexual identities?

Answer 66

• Double standards
• verbal abuse
• male gaze
• male peer groups
• female peer groups - policing identity
• teachers and discipline.

Question 67

What is meant by a double standard regarding gender identity?

Answer 67

A double standard exists when we apply one set of moral standards to one group but a different set to another group in the case of gender identity.

Question 68

How does Lee identify a double standard of sexual mortality?

Answer 68

Lee identifies a double standard of sexual mortality in which boys boast about their own sexual exploits, but call a girl a slay, it she doesn’t have a steady boyfriend or if she dresses and speaks in a certain way. Boys gain status from sexual deeds and ignored by male teachers but if girls do the same they attract negative labels

Question 69

What do feminists see double standards as an example of?

Answer 69

Feminists see double standards as an example of patriarchal ideology that justifies male power and devalues women. Double standards also seen as a form of social control that reinforces gender inequality by keeping females subordinate to males.

Question 70

How did paechter find name calling is a way of policing each others sexual identities?

Answer 70

Paechter sees name calling as helping to shape gender identity and maintain male power. The use of negative labels such as gay are ways in which pupils police each others sexual identities.

Question 71

What does mac an Ghail mean by the male gaze ?

Answer 71

Mac an ghail refers to the male gaze as the visual aspect to the ways pupils control each others identities such as the way male pupils and teachers look girls up and down , seeing them as sexual objects and making judgements about their appearances

Question 72

What does Mac an ghail see the male gaze as a form of ?

Answer 72

Mac an ghail sees the male gaze as a form of surveillance through which dominant heterosexual masculinity is reinforced and feminine is devalued . It is one of the ways boys prove their masculinity to their friends and is often combined with constant retelling of stories about sexual conquests , boys who do not display their heterosexuality in this way run the risk of being labelled as gay

Question 73

How do male peer groups reinforce their definition of masculinity and how do they in Epstein and Willis study ?

Answer 73

Male peer groups use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity . For example studies by Epstein and Willis shows boys in anti school subcultures often accuse boys who want to do well at school of being gay.

Question 74

What was Ringrose study on female peer groups - policing identities ?

Answer 74

Ringrose’s small scale study of working class girls peer groups found that being popular was crucial to the girls identity . As the girls made a transition from a girls friendship culture into a heterosexual dating culture , they faced a tension between ;
-an idealised feminine identity - of showing loyalty to their female peer group , Being non competitive and getting along with everybody in their friendship culture
-sexualised identity - this involved competing for boys in the dating culture

Question 75

How did Currie argue that girls having relationships with boys gains them symbolic capitals but why is it a high risk game ?

Answer 75

Currie argues while relationships with boys can give girls symbolic capital , it is a high risk game , this is because girls are forced to perform a balancing act between these 2 identities ;
-girls who are competitive and or think they are better than others risk slut shaming and being excluded from the friendship culture
-on the other hand , girls who don’t compete for boyfriends may face frigid shaming by other girls

Question 76

What is meant by a female boffin identity what did Reay argue this identity is ?

Answer 76

A boffin identity - girls who want to be successful educationally may feel the need to conform to the schools notions of the ideal feminine identity .
Reay found this involved the girls having to perform an asexual identity , presenting themselves as lacking any interest in boyfriends or popular fashion.

Question 77

How did Haywood and Mac an Ghail find that teachers also play a part in reinforcing dominant definitions of gender identity ?

Answer 77

Haywood and Mac an Ghail found that male teachers told boys off for behaving like girls and teased them when they gained lower marks in tests than girls . Teachers often ignored boys verbal abuse of girls and even blamed girls for attracting it

Question 78

What did askew and Ross find out about how male behaviour can reinforce messages about gender ?

Answer 78

Askew and Ross show how male teachers behaviour can subtly reinforce messages about gender . For example male teachers often have a protective attitude towards female colleagues , coming into their classrooms to rescue them from threatening pupils who are being disruptive. However , this reinforces the idea that women cannot cope alone

Question 79

What did askew and Ross find out about how male behaviour can reinforce messages about gender ?

Answer 79

Askew and Ross show how male teachers behaviour can subtly reinforce messages about gender . For example male teachers often have a protective attitude towards female colleagues , coming into their classrooms to rescue them from threatening pupils who are being disruptive. However , this reinforces the idea that women cannot cope alone