gender and crime

Question 1

explanations for why women commit less crime than men

Answer 1

• functionalism: sex role theory
• control theory: carlen
• control theory: heidensohn

Question 2

why women commit less crime than men
- functionalism: sex role theory, different socialisation
PARSONS

Answer 2

• PARSONS; traces gender differences in crime to the gender roles in the nuclear family. this gives girls an adult role model but means that boys tend to reject feminine models of behaviour (tenderness, gentleness and emotion). boys seek to distance themselves by engaging ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ through aggression and anti-social behaviour which can slip into delinquency

Question 3

why women commit less crime than men
- functionalism: sex role theory, different socialisation
COHEN + NEW RIGHT

Answer 3

lack of adult male role models mean boys are more likely to turn to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity - status is earned by acts of toughness, risk taking, delinquency

eval: wallkate criticises sex role theory for its biological assumptions

Question 4

why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - rational choice - class and gender deals (carlen)

Answer 4

conducted unstructured tape-recorded interviews on 34 15-46yr old, WC women who has been convicted of crime.
argues WC women are led to conform through promises of twp types of rewards
1. class deal; women who work will be offered material rewards
2. gender deal; patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life —- crime becomes more likely if these rewards are not available or worth the effort
– class deal : these women had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living and this left them feeling powerless, oppressed and victims of injustice
– gender deal : saw few rewards e.g abuse; poverty and being brought up in care or oppressive family were two main causes of criminality

eval; small sample, unrepresentative, takes away free will

Question 5

why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN

Answer 5

women are more conformist - they commit fewer and less serious crimes than men because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduces their opportunities to offend

control at
HOME
IN PUBLIC
AT WORK

Question 6

why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN

control AT HOME

Answer 6

womens domestic role imposes severe restrictions on their time and movement and confines them to the house for long periods, reducing their opportunities to offend. women who try to reject their domestic role may have partners imposing it by force, through domestic violence
- dobash and dobash; many violent attacks result from mens dissatisfaction with their wives’ performance of domestic duties
- daughters are subject to patriarchal control. have more rules- bedroom culture= less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the street

Question 7

why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN

control IN PUBLIC

Answer 7

women controlled in public by fear of male violence e.g islington crime survey - 54% of women avoided being on dark places. sensationalist media reportings of rape adds to the fear
- controlled in fear of being defined as not respectable e.g dress, makeup etc
- lees; boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse

Question 8

why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN

control AT WORK

Answer 8

womens behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers. sexual harassment is widespread and helps women stay in their place. subordinate position reduces major criminal activity at work e.g glass ceiling

Question 9

eval of heidensohn

Answer 9

underplays the role of free will - external factors

Question 10

explanations for increase in crime by women

Answer 10

liberation thesis
feminisation of poverty

Question 11

explanations for increase in crime by women
- liberation thesis

Answer 11

ADLER; womens liberation has led to a new type of female criminals and a rise in the female crime rate. women have begun to adopt traditionally ‘male’ roles in both legitimate activity (work) and illegitimate (work) – they now also commit typically ‘male’ offences such as white collar crime and violence
-evidence: adler argues the pattern of female crime has shifted. she cites studies showing rising levels of female participation in crimes e.g embezzlement and armed robbery

eval; female crime rates began rising in the 50s, before womens liberation movement. most female criminals are WC - group least likely to be affected by liberation

Question 12

explanations for increase in crime by women
- feminisation of poverty

Answer 12

some feminists have argues that poverty has become feminised in the last 20 years, as women have become increasingly more likely than men to experience low pay and benefits. consequently, some crimes dominated by women e.g shoplifting and social security fraud may be a reaction to poverty
- walklake notes that shoplifting and sex work are often motivated by economic necessity, e.g to provide children with food, toys and clothes

Question 13

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS

Answer 13

• chivalry thesis
• double deviance

Question 14

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
POLLAK

Answer 14

argue that men have a protective attitude towards women and hate to accuse women. cjs is thus more lenient with women and so their crimes are less likely to end up in official statistics which gives an invalid picture

Question 15

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
SELF REPORT STUDIES

Answer 15

• flood-page et al (2000) found that while only 1/11 female self-reported offenders had been cautioned or prosecuted, the figure for males was over 1/7 self-reported offenders
• graham and bowling; self report studies suggest women commit more crime than they get prosecuted for

Question 16

statistics about crime and gender

Answer 16

95% prison population men
87% all recorded crime by men
85% arrests men
73% convictions men

30% of female crime is TV license evasion
28% of shoplifters are female

Question 17

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
OFFICIAL STATISTICS

Answer 17

• females are more likely than males to be released on bail rather than remanded in custody
• females are more likely than males to receive a fine or a community sentence, and less likely to be sent to a prison
• only 1/9th female offenders receive a prison sentence for shoplifting, but 1/5 males

Question 18

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
OFFICIAL STATISTICS - hoods

Answer 18

study of over 300 defendants found that women were about 1/3rd less likely to be jailed in similar cases

Question 19

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
buckle and farrington

Answer 19

observational study of shoplifting in a department store witnessed twice as many males shoplifting as females - despite the fact that the numbers of male and female
offenders in the official statistics are more or less equal. this small-scale study thus suggests that women shoplifters may be more likely to be prosecuted than their male counterparts

Question 20

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
farrington and morris

Answer 20

study of sentencing 408 offences of theft in a court found that women were nnnnnoootttt sentenced more leniently for comparable offences

Question 21

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
box

Answer 21

review of british and american self-report studies concludes that women who commit serious offences are not treated more favourably than men

Question 22

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
SELF REPORT STUDIES

Answer 22

• provides evidence males commit more offences e.g young men more likely than women to report binge drinking, taking illegal drugs or engaging in disorderly conduct
• hales et al (2009) found that they were significantly more likely to have been offenders in all major offence categories. other studies suggest that the gender gap increases as the offences becomes more serious

Question 23

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
under-reporting of male crimes against women

Answer 23

chivalry thesis also ignores the fact that male crimes do not get reported. e.g in 2012, only 8% of females who has been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
- yearnshire; found that a women typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence

Question 24

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
HEIDENSOHN, sharpe, stewart

Answer 24

argues the court treats females more harshly than males when they deviate from gender norms;
- double standards; courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity. sharpe - analysis of 55 youth worker records, 7/11 girls were referred for support because they were sexually active, but 0/44 boys were
- women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly. stewart - magistrates’ perceptions of female defendants’ characters were based on stereotypical gender roles

Question 25

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
carlen

Answer 25

argues that when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more according to the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters. girls who parents believe them to be beyond control are more likely to receive custodial sentences than girls who live more ‘conventional’ lives
- carlen found that scottish judges are more likely to judge women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers

Question 26

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
feminists, smart

Answer 26

• fems argue these double standards exist bc the cjs is patriarchal. very evident in the way the system deals with rape cases
• smart; judges make sexist comments e.g ‘she only has to keep her legs shut’

Question 27

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
walklate

Answer 27

in rape cases it is not the defendant who is on trial but the victim, since she has to prove her respectability in order to have her evidence accepted

Question 28

reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
adler

Answer 28

women who are deemed to lack respectability such as single parents, punks and peace protestors, find it difficult to have their testimony believed by the court

Question 29

messerschmidt

Answer 29

argues that masculinity is a social construct ot ‘accomplishment’ and men have to constantly work at constructing and presenting it to others. in doing so, some men have more resources than others to draw upon

Question 30

hegomonic masculinity

Answer 30

dominant most prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
‘work in the paid-labour market, the subordination of women, heterosexism [i.e. difference from and desire for women] and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men’.

Question 31

subordinated masculinities

Answer 31

include hay men, who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, as well as lower-class and some ethnic minority men, who lack the resources to do so

Question 32

white middle class youths, messerschmidt

Answer 32

have to subordinate themselves to teachers in order to achieve mc status, leading to an accommodating masculinity in school. outside school, their masculinity takes an oppositional form, e.g through drinking, pranks and vandalism

Question 33

white working class youths

Answer 33

have less chance of educational success, so their masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school. its constructed around sexist attitudes, being tough and opposing teachers’ authority e.g the lads in willis study

Question 34

black lower wc youths, messerschmidt

Answer 34

may have few expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang membership and violence to express their masculinity, or turn to serious property crime to achieve material success

Question 35

criticisms of messerschmidt

Answer 35

• circular argument that masculinity explains male crimes e.g violence because they are committed by males, who have violent characteristics
• doesn’t explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity
• overworks concept of masculinity to explain virtually all male crimes, from joy riding to embezzlement

Question 36

postmodernity, masculinity and crime

Answer 36

globalisation has led to the loss of many of the traditional manual jobs which working class men were able to express their masculinity by hard physical labour and by providing for their families
– expansion of the service sector, including the nighttime leisure economy of clubs, pubs and bars. for some young wc men this has provided a combination of legal employment, lucrative criminal opportunities and a means of expressing their masculinity

Question 37

winlow

Answer 37

study of bouncers in sutherland, an area of de-industrialisation and unemployment . working as bouncers in the pubs and clubs provided young men with both paid work and the opportunity for illegal business ventures in drugs, tobacco and alcohol, as well as the opportunity to demonstrate their masculinity through the use of violence

Question 38

bodily capital

Answer 38

an organised professional criminal subculture has emerged as a result of the new illicit business opportunities to be found in the nighttime economy.
- the ability to use violence becomes not just a way of displaying masculinity, but a commodity with which to earn a living
- to maintain their reputation and employability, the men must use their bodily capital. e.g many of the bouncers seek to develop their physical assets by body building

Question 39

bodily capital pt 2

Answer 39

the signs of masculinity become an important commodity in their own right, reflecting the idea that in postmodern society, signs take on a reality of their own independent of the thing they supposedly represent.
- this opens up new criminal opportunities
for men who are able to use violence to express masculinity, by creating the conditions for the growth of an organised criminal subculture

Question 40

katz and lyng

Answer 40

argues that people get drawn into crime because it is seductive, because it is thrilling. Postmodernists interpret this simply as part of a postmodern society which calls on us to enjoy our leisure time – crime is one means whereby some people do just that – this is very much the feeling of many people who took part in the London Riots in 2011.
- Lyng (1990) developed the concept of ‘edgework’ – by this he meant that crime was a means whereby people could get a thrill by engaging in risk-taking behaviour – going right to the edge of acceptable behaviour, and challenging the rules of what is acceptable. Again, we can see this very much as an outgrowth of a postmodern society which encourages and rewards risk-taking behaviour.