gender and crime Flashcards
explanations for why women commit less crime than men
- functionalism: sex role theory
- control theory: carlen
- control theory: heidensohn
why women commit less crime than men
- functionalism: sex role theory, different socialisation
PARSONS
- PARSONS; traces gender differences in crime to the gender roles in the nuclear family. this gives girls an adult role model but means that boys tend to reject feminine models of behaviour (tenderness, gentleness and emotion). boys seek to distance themselves by engaging ‘compensatory compulsory masculinity’ through aggression and anti-social behaviour which can slip into delinquency
why women commit less crime than men
- functionalism: sex role theory, different socialisation
COHEN + NEW RIGHT
lack of adult male role models mean boys are more likely to turn to all-male street gangs as a source of masculine identity - status is earned by acts of toughness, risk taking, delinquency
eval: wallkate criticises sex role theory for its biological assumptions
why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - rational choice - class and gender deals (carlen)
conducted unstructured tape-recorded interviews on 34 15-46yr old, WC women who has been convicted of crime.
argues WC women are led to conform through promises of twp types of rewards
1. class deal; women who work will be offered material rewards
2. gender deal; patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life —- crime becomes more likely if these rewards are not available or worth the effort
– class deal : these women had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living and this left them feeling powerless, oppressed and victims of injustice
– gender deal : saw few rewards e.g abuse; poverty and being brought up in care or oppressive family were two main causes of criminality
eval; small sample, unrepresentative, takes away free will
why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN
women are more conformist - they commit fewer and less serious crimes than men because patriarchal society imposes greater control over women and this reduces their opportunities to offend
control at
HOME
IN PUBLIC
AT WORK
why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN
control AT HOME
womens domestic role imposes severe restrictions on their time and movement and confines them to the house for long periods, reducing their opportunities to offend. women who try to reject their domestic role may have partners imposing it by force, through domestic violence
- dobash and dobash; many violent attacks result from mens dissatisfaction with their wives’ performance of domestic duties
- daughters are subject to patriarchal control. have more rules- bedroom culture= less opportunity to engage in deviant behaviour on the street
why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN
control IN PUBLIC
women controlled in public by fear of male violence e.g islington crime survey - 54% of women avoided being on dark places. sensationalist media reportings of rape adds to the fear
- controlled in fear of being defined as not respectable e.g dress, makeup etc
- lees; boys maintain control through sexualised verbal abuse
why women commit less crime than men
- control theory - patriarchy- differential control; HEIDENSOHN
control AT WORK
womens behaviour at work is controlled by male supervisors and managers. sexual harassment is widespread and helps women stay in their place. subordinate position reduces major criminal activity at work e.g glass ceiling
eval of heidensohn
underplays the role of free will - external factors
explanations for increase in crime by women
liberation thesis
feminisation of poverty
explanations for increase in crime by women
- liberation thesis
ADLER; womens liberation has led to a new type of female criminals and a rise in the female crime rate. women have begun to adopt traditionally ‘male’ roles in both legitimate activity (work) and illegitimate (work) – they now also commit typically ‘male’ offences such as white collar crime and violence
-evidence: adler argues the pattern of female crime has shifted. she cites studies showing rising levels of female participation in crimes e.g embezzlement and armed robbery
eval; female crime rates began rising in the 50s, before womens liberation movement. most female criminals are WC - group least likely to be affected by liberation
explanations for increase in crime by women
- feminisation of poverty
some feminists have argues that poverty has become feminised in the last 20 years, as women have become increasingly more likely than men to experience low pay and benefits. consequently, some crimes dominated by women e.g shoplifting and social security fraud may be a reaction to poverty
- walklake notes that shoplifting and sex work are often motivated by economic necessity, e.g to provide children with food, toys and clothes
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis
- double deviance
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
POLLAK
argue that men have a protective attitude towards women and hate to accuse women. cjs is thus more lenient with women and so their crimes are less likely to end up in official statistics which gives an invalid picture
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
SELF REPORT STUDIES
- flood-page et al (2000) found that while only 1/11 female self-reported offenders had been cautioned or prosecuted, the figure for males was over 1/7 self-reported offenders
- graham and bowling; self report studies suggest women commit more crime than they get prosecuted for
statistics about crime and gender
95% prison population men
87% all recorded crime by men
85% arrests men
73% convictions men
30% of female crime is TV license evasion
28% of shoplifters are female
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
OFFICIAL STATISTICS
- females are more likely than males to be released on bail rather than remanded in custody
- females are more likely than males to receive a fine or a community sentence, and less likely to be sent to a prison
- only 1/9th female offenders receive a prison sentence for shoplifting, but 1/5 males
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence FOR
OFFICIAL STATISTICS - hoods
study of over 300 defendants found that women were about 1/3rd less likely to be jailed in similar cases
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
buckle and farrington
observational study of shoplifting in a department store witnessed twice as many males shoplifting as females - despite the fact that the numbers of male and female
offenders in the official statistics are more or less equal. this small-scale study thus suggests that women shoplifters may be more likely to be prosecuted than their male counterparts
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
farrington and morris
study of sentencing 408 offences of theft in a court found that women were nnnnnoootttt sentenced more leniently for comparable offences
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
box
review of british and american self-report studies concludes that women who commit serious offences are not treated more favourably than men
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
SELF REPORT STUDIES
- provides evidence males commit more offences e.g young men more likely than women to report binge drinking, taking illegal drugs or engaging in disorderly conduct
- hales et al (2009) found that they were significantly more likely to have been offenders in all major offence categories. other studies suggest that the gender gap increases as the offences becomes more serious
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
- chivalry thesis - evidence AGAINST
under-reporting of male crimes against women
chivalry thesis also ignores the fact that male crimes do not get reported. e.g in 2012, only 8% of females who has been victims of a serious sexual assault reported it to the police
- yearnshire; found that a women typically suffers 35 assaults before reporting domestic violence
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
HEIDENSOHN, sharpe, stewart
argues the court treats females more harshly than males when they deviate from gender norms;
- double standards; courts punish girls but not boys for premature or promiscuous sexual activity. sharpe - analysis of 55 youth worker records, 7/11 girls were referred for support because they were sexually active, but 0/44 boys were
- women who do not conform to accepted standards of monogamous heterosexuality and motherhood are punished more harshly. stewart - magistrates’ perceptions of female defendants’ characters were based on stereotypical gender roles
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
carlen
argues that when women are jailed, it is less for the seriousness of their crimes and more according to the court’s assessment of them as wives, mothers and daughters. girls who parents believe them to be beyond control are more likely to receive custodial sentences than girls who live more ‘conventional’ lives
- carlen found that scottish judges are more likely to judge women whose children were in care than women who they saw as good mothers
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
feminists, smart
- fems argue these double standards exist bc the cjs is patriarchal. very evident in the way the system deals with rape cases
- smart; judges make sexist comments e.g ‘she only has to keep her legs shut’
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
walklate
in rape cases it is not the defendant who is on trial but the victim, since she has to prove her respectability in order to have her evidence accepted
reasons why women are treated differently to men by the CJS
double deviance- CJS bias against women
adler
women who are deemed to lack respectability such as single parents, punks and peace protestors, find it difficult to have their testimony believed by the court
messerschmidt
argues that masculinity is a social construct ot ‘accomplishment’ and men have to constantly work at constructing and presenting it to others. in doing so, some men have more resources than others to draw upon
hegomonic masculinity
dominant most prestigious form that most men wish to accomplish
‘work in the paid-labour market, the subordination of women, heterosexism [i.e. difference from and desire for women] and the driven and uncontrollable sexuality of men’.
subordinated masculinities
include hay men, who have no desire to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, as well as lower-class and some ethnic minority men, who lack the resources to do so
white middle class youths, messerschmidt
have to subordinate themselves to teachers in order to achieve mc status, leading to an accommodating masculinity in school. outside school, their masculinity takes an oppositional form, e.g through drinking, pranks and vandalism
white working class youths
have less chance of educational success, so their masculinity is oppositional both in and out of school. its constructed around sexist attitudes, being tough and opposing teachers’ authority e.g the lads in willis study
black lower wc youths, messerschmidt
may have few expectations of a reasonable job and may use gang membership and violence to express their masculinity, or turn to serious property crime to achieve material success
criticisms of messerschmidt
- circular argument that masculinity explains male crimes e.g violence because they are committed by males, who have violent characteristics
- doesn’t explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity
- overworks concept of masculinity to explain virtually all male crimes, from joy riding to embezzlement
postmodernity, masculinity and crime
globalisation has led to the loss of many of the traditional manual jobs which working class men were able to express their masculinity by hard physical labour and by providing for their families
– expansion of the service sector, including the nighttime leisure economy of clubs, pubs and bars. for some young wc men this has provided a combination of legal employment, lucrative criminal opportunities and a means of expressing their masculinity
winlow
study of bouncers in sutherland, an area of de-industrialisation and unemployment . working as bouncers in the pubs and clubs provided young men with both paid work and the opportunity for illegal business ventures in drugs, tobacco and alcohol, as well as the opportunity to demonstrate their masculinity through the use of violence
bodily capital
an organised professional criminal subculture has emerged as a result of the new illicit business opportunities to be found in the nighttime economy.
- the ability to use violence becomes not just a way of displaying masculinity, but a commodity with which to earn a living
- to maintain their reputation and employability, the men must use their bodily capital. e.g many of the bouncers seek to develop their physical assets by body building
bodily capital pt 2
the signs of masculinity become an important commodity in their own right, reflecting the idea that in postmodern society, signs take on a reality of their own independent of the thing they supposedly represent.
- this opens up new criminal opportunities
for men who are able to use violence to express masculinity, by creating the conditions for the growth of an organised criminal subculture
katz and lyng
argues that people get drawn into crime because it is seductive, because it is thrilling. Postmodernists interpret this simply as part of a postmodern society which calls on us to enjoy our leisure time – crime is one means whereby some people do just that – this is very much the feeling of many people who took part in the London Riots in 2011.
- Lyng (1990) developed the concept of ‘edgework’ – by this he meant that crime was a means whereby people could get a thrill by engaging in risk-taking behaviour – going right to the edge of acceptable behaviour, and challenging the rules of what is acceptable. Again, we can see this very much as an outgrowth of a postmodern society which encourages and rewards risk-taking behaviour.
