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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

What are sex role stereotypes?

A

Socially or culturally defined sets of expectations we have about the behaviour of each gender

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2
Q

How are sex role stereotypes learned?

A

Implicity (internalisation and schema building) and explicitly (modelling SLT)

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3
Q

What is androgyny?

A

The idea that one person can show equal high stereotypical behaviour of both genders

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4
Q

What are the negative effects of gender stereotypes?

A

They can cause psychological and social harm by artificially restricting behaviour. Reinforcing fixed distinctions could result in lower self worth. Androgyny defies these stereotypes

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5
Q

What is Bem’s sex role inventory (BSRI)?

A

Contains 20 masculine, 20 feminine and 20 neutral items and ppts use a 7 point scale to rate how likely they are to do these behaviours.

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6
Q

What was BSRI criticized for?

A

Because androgyny could be low in both male and female; they added a fourth category called undifferentiated. However, its been criticized for a lack of construct validity because the idea is inconsistent and you could never have all the terms.

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7
Q

What is gender schema theory?

A

Everyone acts according to their dominant schema for a given situation, some people have a wider repertoire of schematic references than others (they’re androgynous), but some people have very specific schemata (they’re strongly M or F)

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8
Q

What gender is XX?

A

Female

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9
Q

What gender is XY?

A

Male

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10
Q

What is SRY and how does it work?

A

It is in the Y chromosome, it causes male physical development at the fetal stage by creating a sex changing protein that binds to DNA to control other genes (an epigenetic change)

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11
Q

How do fetuses develop sex?

A

Every fetus looks the same after conception but the sex organ development is complete at around 3 months after conception

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12
Q

How do male fetuses develop further masculine characteristics?

A

Lutropin is produced in both sexes in the adrenal glands and testes contain leydig cells which respond to lutropin by producing testosterone- this drives male development

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13
Q

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome?

A

An XXY configuration in which a child is born with a penis and develops male traits. They are born infertile and have feminized characteristics (e.g. not much facial hair). They can suffer from psychological and cognitive problems.

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14
Q

What is Turner’s syndrome?

A

Due to XO instead of XX or XY meaning one sex chromosome missing. Girls are born with female reproductive organs but are physically short and have no monthly period.

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15
Q

What gender does Klinefelter’s affect?

A

Male

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16
Q

What gender does Turner’s affect?

A

Female

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17
Q

Whats the chromosome configuration for Klinefelter’s?

A

XYY

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18
Q

Whats the chromosome configuration for Turner’s?

A

XO

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19
Q

What is the concept of Kohlberg’s gender theory?

A

That there are biologically predetermined stages that we all go through when forming ideas.

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20
Q

What is stage 1 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender labelling

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21
Q

What happens in the gender labelling stage?

A

Children (2-3 yrs) know if they are a boy or girl and can label others based on appearance, e.g. hair length. This is pre-operational thinking (lacks internal logic and is not consistent) and by the end of this stage, children have schemata for simple masculine/feminine characteristics.

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22
Q

What is stage 2 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender stability

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23
Q

What happens in the gender stability stage?

A

When children (4-7 yrs) realize gender is stable over time but they haven’t yet realized that gender is stable across situations (e.g. man wearing a dress is still a male). They are not aware of conservation, but they know that gender and appearance are separate.

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24
Q

What is stage 3 of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Gender constancy

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25
Q

What happens in the gender constancy stage?

A

When children (>7) believe that gender is entirely independent of time, place, or appearance. They begin to show preferences for gender-appropriate behaviour, and reject gender inappropriate behaviour.

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26
Q

What is a weakness of Kohlberg’s theory?

A

Lack of construct validity; research shows boys develop gender constancy before girls. Girls spend much longer doing masculine tasks than boys spend less time doing feminine tasks- this means there should not be a single stage for both genders. Beta bias?

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27
Q

What changes did Martin and Halverson make to Kohlberg’s theory?

A
  • learning of gender-relevant info happens before gender constancy (this means that children can show preference for gender-appropriate behaviour and that gender labelling is enough to self identify gender)
  • The gender schema that you form will have effects on your psychological functioning later in life, especially cognitive abilities
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28
Q

What is the relevance of schema formation in gender schema theory?

A
  • Children form schema from the outside world- TV, parents etc (schema formation)
  • This contains information of social norms
  • Gender schema is therefore very simplistic and black and white, full of stereotypes
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29
Q

What is in-group bias?

A

When people show preference/are more positive towards people like them in the same social group

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30
Q

What is out-group bias?

A

When people are less positive to people who they may not associate with, because they’re in a different ‘group’

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31
Q

What is the relevance of ingroup/outgroup bias in gender schema theory?

A

Children’s gender schema is formed over their lives, they make links between part of self-schemata and groups they identify with (e.g. gender groups, friends)

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32
Q

How does ingroup/outgroup bias eventually lead to negative impacts?

A
  • maximization of in group positive qualities
  • maximization of out group negative qualities
    This builds SELF ESTEEM and reinforces stereotypes
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33
Q

How does gender schema theory explain fixed gender beliefs?

A

Because information that isn’t schema consistent is ignored and disregarded because attention/working memory rely on top down influence from schema.

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34
Q

How do ingroup/outgroup bias affect peer relationships?

A

They direct children towards same sex peers and away from opposite sex peers. This was explained in Kohlberg’s gender constancy stage. Children also learn that everyone has the same biases/theory of mind- they think that having relationships with out group peers will lead to rejection/hostility from friends.

35
Q

What is an evaluation research support of GST?

A

Memory studies by M+H; children’s recall was significantly more accurate for gender appropriate behaviour/stimuli. This suggests they pay more attention when its ingroup

36
Q

How does GST have good construct validity?

A

M+H showed children distort information to become what they expected instead of what they saw; kids are keen to please adults (social desirability bias+ they are reinforced for gender appropriate behaviour). Thus, lab studies are not great to use on children as there is a lack of mundane realism and introduction of unfamiliar stimuli means less ecological validity

37
Q

What is internalisation?

A

Accepting other’s beliefs because they resonate with you own

38
Q

What is identification?

A

Complying to gain access to a group, then accepting it

over time

39
Q

How are internalisation/identification important in gender?

A

They explain ingroup/outgroup bias in GST, rejection of gender innapopriate behaviour in Kohlberg’s theory and the persistence of sex role stereotypes

40
Q

What happens in the oedipus complex?

A
  • Boys become aware of their sexuality and they desire their mother’s full attention- they see their father as competition
  • Boy wishes father was dead but fears revenge (castration anxiety which the boy represses)
  • The boy imitates the father’s behaviour and identifies with him to impress his mother
  • Conflict is resolved when the boy no longer feels competition aginst his father SUPEREGO DEVELOPS
41
Q

What is a strength of research into androgyny?

A

It was found that there was a relationship between androgyny and mental health. Pravash showed high androgyny linked with lower levels of depression in women. This shows the benefits of androgyny and how it can lead to acceptance in the self. In turn, this will have benefits for people and NHS (economic implications).

42
Q

What real world applications are there of androgygny?

A
  • Parenting advice; discouraging stereotypes. In 2012 Time magazine followed one such family and the huge social media backlash indicated this is not culturally valid or ethical in many places and parents may be subject to abuse
  • Economic and healthcare applications mean this is a promising area for policy makers, if a socially acceptable method is found
  • Shafer and Emerson research into role of the father- if a father can show androgyny this will be beneficial for the child and they will develop in a healthy way
43
Q

How does Kohlberg’s theory link to SLT?

A

As the gender constancy stage is not valid for both genders, Huston suggested this is because of SLT. Male role models are more socially powerful so boys are under greater pressure to identify with them. This highlights the nature/nurture debate as it based on biological determinism and exclude SL factors.

44
Q

Who proposed the Electra complex and why?

A

Jung- to address the criticisms that Freud’s theories were gender biased (beta bias).
Freud later added the feminine oedipus attitude.

45
Q

What happens in the electra complex?

A
  • Girls are initally attracted to their mother but are confused when they have no penis
  • Girls resent mother (penis envy), assuming the girl doesn’t have one because her mother felt inadequate and castrated her
  • Girl begins to feel sexual attraction to her father instead
  • She fails to identify with her father as she observes gender differences
  • Penis envy is replaced by a desire for a baby and she begins to identify with her mothers role
46
Q

What are some issues with the phallic stage?

A

The oedipus complex suggests all healthy men have overcome their repressed anxiety. Those without a father figure will never attain this.
The boy may then become promiscuous because he internalised the belief that women are unattainable.
He may also internalise female behaviours/become homosexual.

47
Q

What are some issues with the electra complex?

A

It implies that girls/single parent boys identify with mother as a last resort- like nobody chooses femininity. He suggested feminine behaviours were inferior and showed weakness- the realisation that they lack what it takes to be a man forced them to settle for women’s role. This is why women are more anxious/amoral.

48
Q

Why are both complexes criticised for exaggerating children’s sexual awareness?

A

Because Kohlberg suggested that kids are unaware that the opposite sex has different bodies (before gender stability).
Famous longitudinal study: infant girls exposed to more parental nudity were more likely to be sexually active at 18, opposite for boys; gender affected differently like freud said.
- Kohlberg’s theory revised in GST accounts for issues with stages + timings he suggested. Longitudinal correlation studies may not show causality( deterministic and reductionist conclusions, lack ecological validity)

49
Q

What is indirect reinforcement?

A

Bandura combined vicarious reniforcement and observation to create this overall term.

50
Q

How does indirect reinforcement link to GST?

A

In group/out group bias links to IR and modelling

51
Q

How does Kohlberg’s theory link to Bandura’s theory?

A

Identification with the same gender, also assimulate is like identification

52
Q

How does Freud’s theory link to Bandura’s theory?

A

Freud’s oedipus complex says that boys associate with their father and model their behaviour, this is identification

53
Q

What is Bandura’s theory known as?

A

Social cognitive theory

54
Q

Why did Bandura adapt his behaviourist approach?

A

because by the late 90s, the cognitive approach was explaining the processes it couldn’t account for. E.g. bandura began with the term ‘mediational processes’ yet began calling them ‘cognitive processes’
–> children undergo a cognitive assessment of new behaviours, comparing the expectations of physical consequences, e.g reward vs punishment

55
Q

When children perform non-stereotypical behavior and its met with mocking/punishment, what happens?

A

This non-stereoytpical behaviour becomes less frequent

56
Q

When children perform gender appropriate behaviour and its met with a reward, what happens?

A

The gender appropriate behaviour becomes more frequent

57
Q

What happens when a child is mocked and changes their behaviour?

A

Its met with acceptance and praise, thus the gender appropriate behaviour becomes more frequent

58
Q

What did Bussey and Bandura find about how children learn to evaluate others behaviour and then their own?

A

They showed children aged 3-4 videos of other children playing with masculine or feminine toys. The younger children did not approve of when others displayed gender inconsistent behavior but not for themselves, whereas older children disapproved of both (this was confirmed in what toys the children decided to play with; suggesting self-regulation increases with age.

59
Q

How is SLT explaining gender development reductionist?

A

It awknowledges innate and biological behaviours but doesn’t include them in the explanation. It has been proven that testosterone in the prenatal stage creates a more masculine brain/behaviours, and in Mead’s research she found men typically acted more aggressively in all the tribes/societies she studied. Thus, it relies too much on social processes and a more holistic approach which takes into other factors into consideration would be much more generalisable.

60
Q

What does it mean when we refer to culture?

A

Consensus norms, traditions and morals that are valued in society

61
Q

Why are men and women viewed differently around the world?

A

As different cultures hold different views and have different expectations of gender

62
Q

What are some cultural expectations of women?

A
  • they are seen to be more conformist and have less independence than men
  • -> research shows this is false and that the largest factors in conformity were activity level and physical environment according to a meta analysis
  • women are usually less powerful/well-paid (this is decreasing in UK)
63
Q

What is Mead’s 1935 study called?

A

Sex and temperament in three primitive societies

64
Q

What kind of study was Mead’s?

A

An overt participation observational study

65
Q

Where did Mead’s study take place and why?

A

In Papa New Guinea as this was a place with many small tribes speaking the same language

66
Q

What were the findings in tribe 1?

A

BOTH men and women were gentle, cooperative and kind

67
Q

What were the findings of tribe 2?

A

BOTH men and women were aggressive, narcisistic and machiavellian

68
Q

What were the findings of tribe 3?

A

MEN ONLY were emotionally fragile, sensitive and anxious (of westerners)
WOMEN ONLY were assertive, hostile and domineering

69
Q

What do Mead’s findings suggest?

A
  • Supports the idea of androgyny- oppression of women is learnt, not innate
  • Bad traumatic experience alters your schema with a permanent change (links to the cognitive theory) as the in the past, tribe 3 males had to fight off westerners yet many were killed and hurt thus they behave different
70
Q

What did Bandura and Bussey do?

A

They conducted a content analysis of a large range of film and print media to investigate gender roles

71
Q

What were some expectations of men found by Bandura and Bussey?

A

Confidence, independence, assertive, interesting, complex and strong

72
Q

What were some expectations of women found by Bandura and Bussey?

A

Dependent, anxious/hysterical, unambitious, emotional, two-dimentional

73
Q

What are the difference between men and women in the media?

A

Men are shown in control whereas women are helpless (Hodges)

On TV most women are physically flawless and emotionally passive whilst men are clumsy yet accomplished

74
Q

What did McGhee’s longitudinal study show (culture+media)?

A

How powerful embedded media stereotypes are on children. Children aged 6 to 12 watching more than 25 hours of TV per week expressed more stereotypes that children who watched less than 10.

75
Q

What impact does vicarious reinforcement have on gender stereotypes?

A

All media reinforces gender stereotypes as men and women are seen to succeed/be rewarded more if they perform gender appropriate behaviours.

76
Q

What is gender identity disorder?

A

A psychological condition involving gender dysphoria, distress with one’s assigned gender. It appears in the DSM-V
This does not include intersex conditions which are biologically verifiable.

77
Q

What is a genetic explanation that could explain transexuality?

A

Hare studied male to female transexual’s DNA and found the receptor gene in transexuals, androgen, was significantly longer. This means that the ability of testosterone to cause changes in developed is reduced, thus the brain of the transexual may be less masculine than average.

78
Q

How many brain structure/functioning affect gender dysmorphia?

A

Its possible that transexual’s brains dont fit their genetic sex.
The BSTc is twice the size in straight men than women- this intergrates info from across the limbic system and monitors stress-readiness levels. The size of the BTSc correlates with preferred sex (doesn’t have to be the biological sex).
In male to female transexuals, the BTSc is a similar size to the average female
In female to male transexuals, the BTSc is a similar size to the average male

79
Q

What is the phantom limb/cross wing theory?

A

Ramachandran suggested that gender dysphoria is due to innate crosswiring; the sensory cortex is connected differently. Two thirds of female to male transexuals report the sensation of having a phantom penis.
This includes phantom errections and a loss of feeling in female genitals

80
Q

How may the environment have an impact on gender dysphoria?

A

Some environmental pollutants like insecticides (specifically DDT) contain oestrogen that can reach the bloodstream in humans. Boys born to DDT exposed mothers were found to have feminine characteristics.

81
Q

How can childhood trauma cause gender dysphoria?

A

In a case study, by Coates et al., the boy’s mother had an abortion when he was around 3 years old and the boy witnessed his mother fall into a deep depression. Coates suggested he developed gender dysphoria in a way to understand the mother and relate to her. This is a defence mechanism which links to Freud’s theory.

82
Q

How can a boys relationship with his mother affect gender dysphoria?

A

Boys that developed gender dysphoria had a very close and affectionate relationship with their mothers, so boundaries may have been very blurred. These boys may have over-identified with their mother/model which may have lead to confused identify.

83
Q

How may a girls relationship with their father affect gender dysphoria?

A

Dysphoric girls were usually rejected by their fathers as young children, so they may have over identified with them and performed male behaviours to gain acceptance. This may lead to confused identity.

Psychology A level (11 decks)

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