Gender Flashcards
1
Q
it is harder to discourage women from criminality - true or false
A
false - girls reach peak of offending earlier and stop earlier
2
Q
In 2011/12 … of arrests were women
A
15-17%
3
Q
women come to the attention of CJS far less than males - true or false?
A
true - women don’t offend as much or get caught as much
4
Q
women are more likely than men to self-report admit to offending, true or false?
A
false
5
Q
what is the most common punishment for women? (and men!)
A
fines.
then community sentence, then discharge…
6
Q
what crime type is committed by women (and men) most? and the 2nd most common?
A
violence against a person (34% and 31%)
theft and handling stolen goods (30% and 20%)
7
Q
women are most commonly found guilty of which crime?
A
theft and handling of stolen goods - even though they are most commonly arrested for violence against a person
8
Q
women account for 1 in 5 arrests, true or false?
A
true
9
Q
criminology tends to ignore female offenders, true or false?
A
true, theories are tailored to male-offending and there are differences
10
Q
classical/biological theories of offending argue that…
A
some individuals are (genetically) predisposed to offend - women it is worse as it contravenes traditional femininity
OUTDATED
11
Q
Socialisation theories offer a better explanation for female offending?
A
TRUE
12
Q
female emancipation is suggested to have caused crime… (Adler, 1975)
A
true, because more women are employed now or are ‘out and about’ and not tied to the home
13
Q
female marginalisation is suggested to cause crime (Leventhal, 1977)…
A
true, women not privy to same opportunities as men or are financially self-sufficient etc, which can drive them to offend
14
Q
criminality is considered a way of doing masculinity…
Messerschmidt, 1993
A
males are more likely to offend to ‘prove their manliness’ - situational accomplishment
15
Q
a positive crime orientation is…
Byrne and Trew, 2005
A
crime is accepted, positively valued and forms a coherent part of ones identity – offenders happily labelled as a crim
16
Q
a negative crime orientation is…
Byrne and Trew, 2005
A
offender rejects/distances themself from crime as it is seen to be in conflict with their identity and oppose the crim label
17
Q
an ambivalent crime orientation is…
Byrne and Trew, 2005
A
criminality not considered key/important part of personality and comes after other aspects of ID
18
Q
offending for women is a lot more problematic/damaging to their identity formation than for men, true or false?
A
true - women often experience high shame/remorse and need to justify offending more…
19
Q
crime is considered a ‘useful resource’ for achieving femininity?
A
false - but masculinity, hell yes
20
Q
women are less likely to offend because their role often necessitates maintaining social order, true or false?
A
true e.g. acceptable motherhood. and crime is less rewarding for women and challenges their ID construction more than men
21
Q
the biggest cause of female offending/imprisonment is their social circumstances, true or false?
A
true - those from socially deprived backgrounds (unemployed, poor education, poverty, criminal family members/peers etc) leads to offending
22
Q
Women are less likely to be victims of crime - t or F?
A
true (22% compared to 24%)
23
Q
what are the 2 main factors affecting victimisation?
A
lifestyle and social background
24
Q
men are more likely than women to be victim of a violent crime
A
true - 4% vs 2%
but for intimate violence - women are more at risk
25
The risk of being a victim of violent crime decreases with age?
true - 16-24 year olds are most at risk
26
men are ml2b victim of homicide than women
true - 69% male victims, 31% female victims
27
women are more at risk of domestic violence and sexual assault and stalking than men?
true. 7% vs 5%
3% vs 0.3%
2.7% vs 4.2%
CSEW 2011/12
28
are there differences in cyberbullying victimisation b/w men and women? Qing Li (2006)
NO, but men are ml2b cyberbullies
29
is bullying caused by different factors for men and women?
yes - men: if they appear unmasculine
| women: based on 'attractiveness'
30
are Female cybervictims more inclined to inform adults ?
yes
31
what year was male rape recognised?
1994
32
what is the max sentence for male rape and why is this wrong?
10 years, whereas for women it is 25 years
33
men are more likely to resist the label of victim and women resist the label of offender?
true
34
male rape myths...
1. Most male victims of sexual assault & rape are gay’
2. men cannot be a victim
3. men are too strong to be overpowered
4. male rape always involved evidence of physical harm
35
'ideal' rape victims are...
young women attacked by strangers, not males or partner-rapes
36
positivist victimology...
| victim blaming
classed as 'inevitable' or 'human nature' if a woman dresses provocatively etc. (victim blaming)
37
radical victimology..
includes victimization beyond the confines of the criminal law
38
victim-precipitation is also known as...
victim-blaming and consequently lost its credibility as a victimology
39
female risk of victimisation has fallen, true or false?
true
40
women are underrepresented in the Police, true or false?
true
41
what year was the first female chief constable appointed?
1995
42
the number of female police officers has increased...
1990: 11%
2009: 25%
43
females make up ... of the Police? but are particularly underrepped in senior ranks
27% (2013)
44
macho 'cop culture' creates an anti-women environment?
in the Police, femininity is associated with weakness - female PC's face sexist 'banter', rape jokes etc (Foster, 2005)
45
female police officers are often given 'less serious roles' ?
true, community work or social work roles (e.g. policing domestic violence)
46
Silvestri (2003) argues that cop culture cannot change...
true, too embedded so instead must employ (and retain) more women to counter it
47
Westmarland (2001) suggests that increasing... will help to disperse cop culture
the promotion of female officers
48
The Gender Model:
| men and women are socialised differently (and biologically have different priorities)
Women - childcare impacts on work commitment and primary emphasis on family roles not work
Men - independent/assertive and more career-orientated than family orientated
49
the gender model is exhibited in policing assignments in that...
women are given more sensitive, care-giving roles of social work/domestic violence/child protection etc
50
The Job model (3)
W E
J R V
M O I
work environment - exposed male bias and opposition to women’s advancement in Police ranks:
job related variables
- perceived lack of commitment /loyalty (childcare duties)
Managerial or organisational influences - lack of support & encouragement for women
51
Managerial or organisational influences -
= lack of support for women
| - Exposed male bias and opposition to women’s advancement in ranks of the Police
52
Organisational characteristics -
increase lack of support/ commitment – because of ‘maternal’ desires
53
Empirical Research/Evidence for the Job Model in all careers:
(Porter et al 1974
B
W
D
Attitudinal Commitment (Porter et al 1974 p 604)
A belief and commitment to organisational goals;
A willingness to exert effort on behalf of the organisation;
A desire to retain membership of the organisation.
54
previous research for job model:
| Kalleberg 1993; Dickens 1998
gender and attitudinal commitment = inconclusive (are men or women more genetically disposed to be more committed?)
Perceptions of attitudinal commitment = women perceived as less committed (results in few promotions/encouragement for promotion and hirings)
55
Attitudinal commitment becomes a crucial part of their identity .. more for women or men?
even if in reality it was inconclusive that women were less committed the perception of them being less committed remains the problem - won’t hire/promote them
56
Dick and Metcalfe (2007) promotion (comparative) study found that women...
were half as likely to be promoted EVEN with the same length of service (10+ years)
57
Dick and Metcalfe's (2007) promotion study found that women are less likely to achieve promotion than men, BUT...
this is not attributed to organisational commitment - no significant difference found b/w men and women - but it is perceived that way
58
it is perceived by senior officers (who are commonly male) that women are less committed to work role BUT
research found no significant difference in commitment b/w men and women
(Dick and Metcalfe, 2007) BUT the perception remains SO women don't get promoted
59
Dick and Metcalfe's (2007) study found that both junior men and women felt...
negatively about the lack of management or organisational support - so not that women receive less support
60
strong management or organisational support is an...
important factor in encouraging commitment to the job (not gendered to be worse for women though)
61
DIck and Metcalfe's 2007 study found common themes b/w male and female junior PC's... (4)
Felt unable to make mistakes,
Were limited in how they expressed themselves,
Observed a lack of openness and honesty between ranks
Disliked the management style they experienced.
62
OVERALL, Dick and Metcalfe's 2007 study found that... (3)
1. men and women share similar levels of organisational commitment.
2. but perception is that women are less committed = fewer promotions
3. even with same number of years on the job, men twice as likely to be promoted
63
Dick and Metcalfe's 2007 findings refute the ‘gender model’ and...
makes the job model appear more applicable - men (esp. senior males) perceive women as not as committed
64
ACPO Policing Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation Strategy (2011) tried to..
create effective MULTI-AGENCY partnerships with sex-workers and NOT treat them as criminals to increase reporting of assault/rape
65
Merseyside police made prostitute-bashing a hate-crime, which lead to...
a multi agency approach that addresses the causes of sex work (to try get them off the streets) HELP NOT ARREST
66
Arresting prostitutes should be a last resort, true or false?
true, following warnings, police engagement with local support projects etc.
67
rape investigation and prosecution (HMIC/HMCPSI) 2012 found a huge variance between forces in...
how up to date their rape problem profiles were (only 3 forces up-to-date)
*intelligence not being managed properly*
68
the number of rapes recorded by the police increased by more than...
a quarter
69
On average, what % of reported rape offences are recorded as ‘no crimes’?
10%
70
out of date rape problem profiles result in...
police are missing evidence of serial rapists, - attacks are not being tracked properly which makes it hard to draw connections between attacks.
71
generally, women are under-represented in the police service but...
it is improving! number of female PC's increasing through targeted recruitment and retention
72
we cannot change macho 'cop culture', however to lessen its effect...
more women must be employed to diffuse the machoism!
73
the gender model has been refuted by Dick and Metcalfe (2007) as...
they found no conclusive evidence that men were more committed to work than women (the perception that women are less committed remains!)
74
there is a lack of organizational support for all lower ranking officers which...
maybe women don't handle the lack of support as well as men (gender model) esp. if constant macho cop culture
75
men outnumber women across all crim types, true or false?
true
76
The type of sentence women are ml2 receive is...
fines (77%)
community sentences (10%)
prison (3%)
suspended (2%)
77
what % of women receive immediate custodial sentences?
3%
78
what proportion of sentences were male and female?
3/4 male (76%) and female 1/4 (24%)
79
in 2011, how many women compared to men were sentenced?
440,000 (24%) of all sentences compared to 1,400,000 (76%) *rough*
80
have the number of court proceedings increased or decreased (2007-2011) for males and females?
both are INCREASING - but females apparently at a faster rate
81
for crown court trials,biggest difference between gender was that...
females got twice as many community sentences as males
| 10% vs 5%
82
community sentences include...
rehabilitation orders, curfews, community punishment and drug treatment/testing orders
83
how many females appeared at crown courts in 2011 compared to males?
2,800 compared to 40,800
| - shows men commit more, serious crimes
84
what serious crimes are more common for women?
theft and handling stolen goods (even though there are more arrests for violence against a person - acquitted), drug offences and fraud/forgery
85
the crimes women tend to commit (theft, stolen goods, fraud etc) suggest that...
financial gain is major incentive - supports female 'strain' theory
86
women are much more likely to receive a fine for ... than men?
theft and handling stolen goods (30% vs 3%)
87
men are more likely to receive a fine as punishment than women?
false - women are ml2 receive fines for all crime types! 57% punished by fines vs 9% (for indictable offences)
88
for drug offences, men and women are ... likely to receive a fine
equally
89
for violent crimes, women are more likely to receive a fine than men, true or false?
true
90
community sentences were much more often given to women (than men) for the crimes of ...
theft and handling and fraud/forgery
91
women were more likely to be discharged or given community service (proportionally) than men?
true
92
women are more likely to receive immediate custody for...
theft and handling, fraud and forgery, drugs (nearly twice as likely as men for each crime)
93
Over 1/4 of female 'immediate custody' sentences are for violence against the person, true or false?
true - figure is similar to males (27% vs 29%)
94
1/5 of female 'immediate custody' sentences are for drug crimes, true or false?
true
95
fines made up what % of female sentences in 2011?
77% - 30% of those were for theft and handling
96
30% of women fines for indictable offences are for which offence?
theft and handling
97
Women are less likely to receive a community sentence if they are in a younger age category?
false - more likely
98
proportionally, men are more likely to receive a community sentence than women?
true - 10% of sentences for women and 15% for men
99
what % of community sentences are for theft and handling?
48% so HALF
100
Average custodial sentence length (ACSL) consistently higher for males, true or false?
true - men its 18 months, women is 11.5 months
101
which crime type is the only one where women on average receive a longer sentence than men?
criminal damage
102
how many people were sentenced in 2011?
1,246,320 people (1/4 were women)
103
77% of all 2011 sentences for women were fines, compared to males which was...
61%
104
what % of males were sentenced to immediate custody in 2011 (compared to women)
10% compared to 3%
105
factors involved in sentencing decisions (4)
1. the message judges want to send (to the offender/community)
2. information about the offence e.g. racially motivated? planned?
3. offender characteristics previous convictions, interaction with court etc
4. judicial judgement
106
Chivalry or ‘judicial paternalism’ is...
the idea that a male authority figure in the courts, will almost take pity on a female, and display chivalry towards her (if she is a conventional woman)
107
Chivalry or ‘judicial paternalism only applies to...
women who conform to conventional roles e.g. 'good mothers' (not homosexuals or single mothers)
108
for women, judges may look at their family, their good/bad mother-ness
which may affect sentencing decisions - want to preserve 'good' families where possible (so non-custodial sentences)
109
Chivalry or ‘judicial paternalism’ is linked to notions that women are... (2)
Passive, physically and emotionally weak
| In need of protection rather than punishment
110
'double deviance' of women means...
women are deviant twice because:
| Women offenders have transgressed social norms AND gender norms
111
deviance of women is often 'medicalised' because...
deviant women must be 'mentally ill' to offend contravene their gender norms and commit 'masculine' crimes
112
seeing women as 'doubly deviant' leads to...
stigmatisation and labelling as deviant from 'proper femininity'
113
the problem with stigmatisation is that it increases the risk of...
RECIDIVISM
114
Chivalry or judicial paternalism and how the offender is 'taken as being' depends on...
the judge and jury and their personalities
115
Hedderman and Hough (1994) found that for indictable crimes, women are ... likely to receive a prison sentence
LESS SEVERE - and the sentences tend to be shorter too
116
Hedderman and Gelsthorpe (1997) found that even when the crime warrants a custodial sentence...
Women more likely to get a community sentence - want to keep women out of prison! - evidence of chivalry?
117
Hedderman and Gelsthorpe (1997)
| found that women are much more likely to get...
a community sentence than a prison sentence
118
there is gendered sentencing disparity for partner-murder
average prison sentence for men who kill intimate partners is 2-6 years, for women it is 15 years.
119
reasons for different sentencing outcomes that are gender-related but NOT gender-bias... (5)
(gendered contextual factors)
basically that women are 'nice offenders' than men...
1. commit less severe offences
2. have fewer previous convictions
3. more likely to have family ties
4. more likely to have employment
5. aggressive to police
6. challenging to the magistrates
120
Godfrey (2001) - same sentences given to male and female offenders but for very different reasons:
males: Punishment
Protect the public
```
females: Punishment
Protect the public
Rehabilitation
Deterrence
Public concern
```
121
the number of women in custody is...
declining - more diverted to non-custodial sentences e.g. fines and community orders
122
Carlen (1998) says that more women are appearing in front of courts because...
more women are falling into the category of social and economic deprivation
123
what were the reasons for female prison rates increasing? (but now in decline) (3)
more women appearing before the courts
more women receiving immediate custodial sentences
An increase in the length of prison sentence
124
Home Office (2004) evidence suggests that courts are imposing ... sentences on women for ... offences
more severe sentences
| on women for less serious offences
125
Women’s Offending Reduction Programme aims to
divert women from custody by tackling offending in the community
(Criticised for ‘net-widening’)
126
why are diversion strategies appealing?
because there are low number of women offenders and better to keep women integrated in society/with their family/maintain social bonds
127
feminist criminology emerged in the 1960's from the growing concern with...
male dominated explanations of crime and punishment
128
patriarchal society has meant that female offenders are...
treated differently by the CJS and society and are villified more (double deviance)
129
Medlicott (2007) argues that women are considered...
more morally depraved than male offenders
130
a consequence of female offenders being considered more 'morally depraved' (Medlicott, 2007) is that..
women are seen to require closer forms of “confinement and control” (Medlicott, 2007)
131
there is an argument that female offenders...
do not fit the punishment regimes enforced by the patriarchal society that is tailored to male offending
132
double jeopardy (same as double deviance) was theorised by...
Carlen et al, 1985; Eaton, 1986; Worrall, 1990)
133
from the 19th century onwards, women have been...
treated differently in prison than men
134
recent years have seen a decline in the number or females in prison, true or false?
true! although 1995-2010 the number of females in prison DOUBLED
135
between 1995-2010 the number of females in prison...
doubled (but is now declining)
136
how many female prisons are there?
13
137
what is the female prison population?
3830 (out of 85,457 total offenders) (4.5%)
138
what % of the prison population is in remand?
| awaiting trial/sentence
15%
139
according to HM inspectorate, remand prisoners...
get treated worse than sentenced prisoners and are
| Unaware of their rights
140
in the remand population...
Women, BME and foreign nationals are over-represented
141
the number of women held in custody on remand ... from 2012-2013
decreased
142
what portion of women are remanded in prison by magistrates courts and then found guilty and sent back to prison?
less than half (700/1600)
143
most women entering prison serve very short sentences, true or false?
true - , 60% of sentenced women (4,113) entering prison were serving six months or less.
144
have sentences for women become more severe in recent years?
yes
145
what crime are the majority of women in prison for?
```
theft and handling (40%)
violent offences (17%)
```
146
more women than men are in prison for non-violent offences - true or false?
true 68% vs 47%
| - other stats say 80% of women = non-violent
147
women are twice as likely as men to report having offended to support someone else's drug use, true or false? (Light et al 2013)
true
148
do Prisons for men and those for women operate within the same rules and policies?
yes - argued this is wrong as there are gender specific needs - women should not be treated the same as men
149
Prison Service Order 4800 sets out...
gender specific standards for working with women prisoners -
150
Prison Service Order 4800 accepts that the needs...
and experiences of women throughout the CJ process may be significantly different to the majority of male offenders.
151
figures suggest that ... of women in custody have a history of abuse?
over half
| HM Chief Inspector of Prisons, 1997; Social Exclusion Unit, 2002
152
Morris et al, 1995; Saradjian, 1987; Loucks, 1997 indicate that a lot of female prisoners have experienced...
physical, sexual and emotional abuse during childhood
153
Browne, 1987; Morris et al, 1995; Mann, 1996; Loucks, 1997 say that a lot of female prisoners have experienced
physical, sexual an emotional abuse during adulthood from their partners
154
there is evidence to suggest that female prisoners have very poor...
physical, psychological and social health (very disadvantged)
155
what % of the prison population are women?
4.5% 2016 - down from 6% in 2013
156
what proportion of deliberate self-injury by prisoners do women account for?
a quarter - yet only make up 6% of total population
| DISPROPORTIONATE
157
what % of prisoners who commit suicide are women?
9% - DISPROPORTIONATE
158
Most of the rise in the female prison population can be explained by...
a significant increase in the severity of sentences
159
in female prisons there is more concern over...
the mental well-being of prisoners who are considered more at-risk of self-harm, depression, suicide etc
160
theories of prison suicide: importation model
suggests prisoners have have pre-existing elevated suicide risk (unstable/chaotic lives lead them to crime...)
161
theories of prison suicide:
| deprivation models
the stresses of being inside (bullying, abuse, depression, loss of family/social ties etc) increases the risk of suicide
162
combined model of prison suicide suggests that...
females offenders come in to prison already predisposed to suicide and 'pressures of being inside' exacerbate their suicidal tendencies
163
Hansard (2005) - how many babies were born to mothers in prison?
118
164
approximately how many children had a parent in prison at some point in 2009?
200,000
165
in 200, roughly how many children were separated from their mother by her being incarcerated?
17,000
166
what % of children whose mother is in prison are cared for by their father?
9%
167
what portion of mothers are single parents before they go to prison?
one fifth
168
the problem with there being so few female prisons is that...
offenders are often placed far from family home - damages social bonds
169
Hansard (2004) says ... of female offenders are held more than 100 miles from home
a quarter
170
what is the average distance a female offender is held away from their home?
60 miles (Women in Prison, 2013)
171
how many mother baby units are there in England?
7
172
in mother baby units, how long do babies remain with their mother for?
18 months
173
Carlen 1990 suggests that prison sentences should only be given to women who have committed...
abnormally serious crimes
174
Carlen 1990 argues that...
imprisonment should be abolished as a normal punishment for women
175
Corston review (2007) argued for a new 'woman-centred approach'...
new approach to how women are treated in the CJS - more holistic and individual approach needed!
176
Corston (2007) argued for a radical change in the treatment of females by the CJS, both for...
women who offend and for women at risk of offending
177
the corston report (2007) was made following...
the death of 6 women at Styal prison - prison deemed an ineffective/innappropriate means of punishment
178
the corston report (2007) concluded that...
Community solutions for non-violent women offenders should be the norm”
179
the corston report (2007) suggested a transformation from female prisons to...
smaller, geographically-dispersed custodial centres that house the minority of serious and violent female offenders only
180
overall aim of CJS for women in custody is to....
| Women's Offending Reduction Programme 2004-7
reduce the number of female offenders in prison through increasing community-based sentences
DIVERSION FROM CUSTODY
181
The aim of the Together Women programme (est. 2006) is to...
reduce female re-offending, divert from prosecution and custody, and divert those at risk from becoming offenders through parent training, mental health management, life skills etc.
182
CRITICISMS of diverting females from custody are that...
is it treating women more favourably (chivalry/judicial paternalism) and therefore as weaker than men or less cuplable?
183
some of the male prison population are equally as vulnerable/sexually abused/psychologically unstable/at risk of suicide as most female prisoners?
true (Leibling 1999) - but discriminated against/ignored by the patriarchal system
184
what % of stop and searches target women?
13%
185
a ... of all convictions are women...
quarter
186
CPS is mostly staffed by women, true or false?
true! 67% but mostly concentrated in lower grades
187
women are underepresented in the CJS, true or false?
true - especially senior positions
188
Cavadino and Dignan argue that women who are perceived as 'failing to perform appropriate femininity' are more likely to receive...
harsher sentences (doubly deviant)
189
(Heidensohn 1985) argue that women commit less crime than men because....
they are socialised differently - more passive, scared to break rules and subject to grater informal social controls
190
Mackie (1998) posits 4 reasons why fewer women go to prison...
1. they commit less serious offences
2. have fewer previous convictions
3. less likely to breach bail
4. less likely to be homeless
191
'equal treatment of men and women in prison does not mean the same treatment' - true or false
true! - their experiences are completely different
| Hale, 2006 and others
192
reasons why women should be kept out of custody: (5)
are they 'mad rather than bad' ?
1. most have children that cannot be cared for by father/family
2. more prone to mental health issues (exacerbated by incarceration)
3. more likely to self-harm/commit suicide
4. over half have history of abuse
5. ml2b dependent on opiates
193
the increase in the female prison population was attributed to...
more punitive society that sent women to prison for petty crimes - not that more serious offending occurred
194
the female prison population is in decline, whereas the male population...
is increasing!
195
BME women are ...represented in prison?
OVER - make up 1/3 of prison pop but only 1/10 of UK pop
196
women are half as likely to be a victim of violent crime than men - true or false?
true (and same for YOUNG men and women)
197
women at higher risk of all forms of intimate violence?
TRUE
198
men are more likely to be victim of all violent crime (except intimate) and ml2be perpetrated by strangers, whereas women...
women ml2be victim to (intimate) abuse and know the perpetrator
199
women made up ... of all homicide victims
1/4
200
females are more likely to know the perpetrator of their abuse/homicide than men, true or false?
true - for men, it is more often strangers that hurt them
201
women are much more likely than men to be killed by their partner?
true - 40% vs 7%
202
women have half the risk of men of being a victim of violent crime, true or false?
true
203
you are at the biggest risk of violence if you are aged...
16-24 (same for men and women)
204
Fawcett (2004) did the Report of the Commission on Women in the CJS to...
ascertain whether women were being treated justly as the majority of CJS is male/designed to tackle male offending
205
Fawcett (2004) Report of the Commission on Women in the CJS found that..
Women are in a system that doesn’t meet their needs or experiences and they are constantly at a disadvantage.
206
women are twice as likely to live in poverty than men, true or false?
true
207
certain legal phrases such as 'reasonable man' disavatnage women...
as it is hard to use this term in self-defence cases
208
Fawcett (2004) found that the Equal Pay Act and Sex Discrimination Act...
made in law but not practised - saw pay differentials, underrepresentation in senior positions, maternity-related discrim, sexual harrassment,...
209
women are best represented in the .... service
PROBATION - roughly half (if not more than) officers of all ranks are women
210
women prison officers (compared to men)...
get paid less on average, don't work for as long, are concentrated in junior positions and experience more harrassment from inmates and officers
211
female prisoners are more likely (than general female population) to be...
single mothers, have been in care, have been abused, lived in poverty, had little/none employment and poor education
212
the number of female police officers is ... year on year
increasing - including in senior ranks (where they remain highly underrepresented)
213
women receive more or less cautions than male offenders?
less - often cry/claim to be misled by males (chivalry theory comes into play)
