Gender Flashcards
What is Kohlberg’s theory?
The idea that a childs understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age due to biological maturation
What is Kohlberg’s 3 stages?
Gender identity
Gender stability
Gender Constancy
What age is Kohlbergs gender identity stage?
Around age 2
What age is Kohlbergs gender stability stage?
Age 4
What age is Kohlbergs gender constancy stage?
Age 6
What is sex?
The biological differences between males and females
Hormones, chromosomes, Anatomy
What is gender?
The psychological, social and cultural differences between men and women
What is sex-role stereotypes?
A set of beliefs and preconceived ideas about what is expected of men/women in a given society/social group
Who usually reinforces sex-role stereotypes?
Parents, peers, the media and other institutions like school
What is the main issue of sex-role stereotypes?
Creates sexist assumptions
What happened to chromosomes in Klinefelter’s syndrome?
+ one X chromosome
Becomes XXY
Affects 1/600
What happened to chromosomes in Turner’s syndrome?
The removal of an X chromosome
Becomes X0
Affects 1/5000
What is Androgyny?
Displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in ones personality
What is Bem’s Sex Role Inventory?
60 characteristics split into 3 categories of feminine, masculine and neutral.
Responders rated themselves on a 7 levelled likert rating scale
Then results placed them into a grid, with categories
Feminine, Masculine - Androgynous, Undifferentiated
Name 4 physical characteristics of kleinfelter’s syndrome
- Long gangy limbs
- reduction in body hair
- Underdeveloped genitals
- Gynaecomastia
Name 4 physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- Webbed neck
- High waist to hip ratio
- No menstrual cycle
- Physically immature
Name 3 psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome
- Higher than average reading abilities
- Poor maths, visual, spatial task performance
- Trouble fitting in
Name 3 psychological characteristics of klinefelter’s syndrome
- poor response to stressful situations
- Memory, language, reading abilities problem solving issues
- Lack of interest in sexual activity
A research support into atypical chromosome patterns?
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Australian study, 87 participants with klinefelter’s syndrome
Those of them identified and treated at a young ages benefited significantly compared to those diagnosed at adulthood
Research in this area can lead to positive outcomes for these individuals
An example of social sensitivity research that can benefit the quality of life
What are 2 limitations of research into atypical chromosome patterns?
EXTERNAL FACTORS
social factors may play a role in their behaviour differences
They may be treated differently therefore the idea that their behaviour is based on purely nurture is arguable (PSYCH DIFFERENCES)
GENERALISATION ISSUE
These are unusual and unrepresentative samples
Generalisation from these individuals to the rest of the population
Differences could be social rather than just nature, making generalisation even more difficult
What are the 3 hormones linked to gender?
Testosterone, Oestrogen and Oxytocin
What is the role of oxytocin?
- CONTRACTIONS causer in uterus during labour (hormone)
- stimulation lactation
Two influence on gender?
media and culture
What was Mead 1935 cultural differences study?
Self immersion in societies studying
research on 3 different tribes in pre=-industrialised societies of new guinea
Mead et al findings on culture differences
Arapesh- Equal unaggressive and peaceful
Mundugumor - Equal aggression/warlike
Tchambuli - Women dominance and influential
Males submissive decoration
Who critiqued meeds work on cultural differences?
Freeman
What was the evaluation of freemans critique on meeds work?
Follow up study found she misled participants
- Observer bias
- Ethnocentrism
What was the Munroes research on culture similarities?
Most societies division of labour are organised on gender roles
- Male breadwinners
- Female nurtures
What is research support as an eval for culture?
Hofstede
- Expectations change when women spend more time in workforce (Away from domestic sphere)
- Traditional roles are a result of social, cultural and religious pressures
How do children learn rigid stereotypes in the media?
SLT
identification and imitation
Who did research into rigid stereotypes in the media?
Furnham and Farragher
What was Furnham and Farraghers research into rigid stereotypes in the media?
TV ads with men in autonomous roles and women in domestic settings
Media reinforces these stereotypes of gender appropriate behaviours
What are the 2 parts of media in culture?
Rigid gender stereotypes
Self-efficacy
What was Mira et als research into self efficacy for media?
India gave programme of smth challenging gender stereotypes
- Female detective drama (78EP)
- Girls who watched were more likely to see themselves working outside the home compared to those that didnt watch
What is the link between self-efficacy and media?
Self efficacy can change due to media influence
What is the limitation of media influence with gender?
Correlation or causation
What comes first?
Media confirms gender norms rather than forms them?
What is a strength of media influence with gender?
Cultivation theory
- More time spent living in the media world, leads to the beliefs reflecting social reality
- Bond and Brogas
P Correlation between ‘Jersey shore’ watchers and permissive attitudes to casual sex
( controlled settings)
What is gender dysphoria?
Having conflict with feelings of identification with the opposite gender and feelings of discomfort with their own body
‘Trapped inside another body’
What are the 2 biological explanations for atypical gender development?
- Brain sex theory
- Genetics
What does BST stand for in atypical gender development for brain sex theory? (s3)
Bed nucleus of the stria terminalis
What are the 2 social explanations for atypical gender development
Social constructionism
Psychoanalytic theory
What does the psychoanalytic theory suggest about atypical gender development?
Social relationships
Male extreme separation before establishing gender identity
Motherly symbiotic fusion
Steals mothers characteristics
What does the social constructionism suggest about atypical gender development?
Society forcing us to choose between 2 options (M/F) led to the GD
Clintock - Kwoluaatmual (F to M) Sambia of New Guinea
What are the 2 evaluations for the social atypical gender development?
Psychoanalytic theory does not account for BM to F
Social constructionism support, more people becoming ‘non-binary’, cultural understanding changes
What are the 2 evaluations for the biological atypical gender development?
Contradicting evidence from BST. BST differences due to hormone therapy rather than GD
Other brain differences, Rametti white matter amount similar to identified sex before hormone therapy
What is Kohlbergs first stage of gender development? +age
Gender identity 2
What is Kohlbergs second stage of gender development? +age
Gender stability 4
What is Kohlbergs third stage of gender development? +age
Gender constancy 6
According to gender schema theory, when does a child develop a schema?
After gender identity is established (age 2-3)
According to gender schema theory, when is their schema fixed?
Age 6
According to gender schema theory, what stereotypes are better remembered?
Ingroup
According to gender schema theory, when does both in and out group schemas become elaborate>
around age 8
2 strengths of being androgynous according to Bem?
Stronger social relationships
Higher self-esteem
What is the role of oestrogen in females?
Determines female characteristics and menstruation
What does oestrogen do to the menstrual cycle?
Hightens emotions and irritability (PMT/S - Premenstrual tension/syndrom)
What is oxytocin also known as?
Love hormone
what does oxytocin reduce and facilitates?
Stress and facilitates bonding
What does oxytocin stimulate?
Lactation
- For mother breastfeeding
What do both sexes equally produce during intimacy?
Oxytocin
Evidence support for testosterone by Wang et al?
Male hypogonadism
- Testosterone therapy for 180 days
- Many physical changes and increased sexual arousal
What are the 3 evaluations on chromosomes/hormones in gender?
- Testosterone support (wang)
- Ignores social factors (hofstede)
- Reductionist
3 evaluations of Kohlberg
Research support
- George boy story play dolls (age 4+6)
HOWEVER
- Bandura found young as 4 felt bad about playing with non gender appropriate toys
Degrees of constancy
- A gradual process
Methodological problem
- Bem said best way to measure is through physicalness
Research support for GST?
Martin and Halverson
- under 6 children more likely to remember gender sterotype behaviours in photographs when tested a week later
What does ingroup info do for a child?
Boost their self-esteem
Explain brain sex theory for gender dysphoria
Gender dysphoria is linked to brain structure
The BST is larger in men than in women and found to be women sized in trans women
Suggests BST size is linked to gender identified rather than biological gender
What is the genetic factor of gender dysphoria
Coolige twin studies
Studied 157 twin pairs (mix of MZ and DZ) for gender dysphoria evidence
Found 67% variance of genetic factor inheritability
What does the psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria suggest?
Family social relationships
B males extreme separation anxiety before gender identity established
Fantasise of a symbiotic fusion with mother
- Leads to the adoption of the mothers identity
What 2 types of media are the focus in gender?
Rigid stereotypes and self-efficacy
What 2 types of culture are the focus in gender?
Differences (Mead) and Similarities (Buss - Similar mate preferences)
What was the study show in cultivation theory?
Jersey shore
- Positive correlation between watching and permissive attitudes towards sex
In social constructionism what is gender dysphoria viewed as?
A social phenomnenom
What was the social constructionism study?
McClintock
Sambia New Guinea individuals with a genetic condition that changes their gentitals
Puberty their genitals change due to more testosterone
Kwolu-aatomol = females then males
When exposed to the rest of the world they got judged
What country was Meads study in?
Papua New Guinea
2 reinforcements in SLT
Differential and Vicarious
What is the research support of SLT?
Lloyd and Smith
4-6 month BABIES in half boy/girl clothes when interacted with adults were given clothes similar toys and encouraged in the clothes similar way
Gender-appropriate behaviours begin from adults from a young age
What other brain structure is in the biological explanation of gender dysphoria?
White matter (Rametti et al)
White matter more similar with identified gender than biological one (Studied before hormone therapy)
What is the RS for gender schema theory?
Age 6 kids when shown photographs were more likely to remember stereotyped gender photograph a week later than normal random photos
Define sex
The biological differences
Hormones, chromosomes and anatomy
Define gender
The psychological, cultural and social differences between males and females
Define sex role stereotypes
A set of preconceived beliefs on the roles and attitudes of each gender in a given society/social group
What did Munroe and Munroe find?
In culture similarities most societies divise labour in gender groups
(male breadwinners, female homeowners)
Cooldige findings on gender dysphoria genetics?
Twin studies gender dysphoria made up for 67% variance rates of genetic factors
Who found the other brain differences in gender dysphoria (Eval)
Rametti - found white matter played a role
What does ingroup info for a child bolster?
Their self-esteem
At what age in GST does a childs gender schema become rigid?
Age 6
2 things GST suggests?
Childs understanding of gender changes with age
Children actively structure their own learning rather than just passively observes (SLT)
What was the Bandura+Bussey counter to George boy story playing with dolls thing?
Reported children as young as 4 feeling good and bad about playing with gender non/appropriate toys
Supports GST more where gender appropriate info is absorbed when gender identity is discovered
What did Herlihy et al find as a RWA for atypical chromosome patterns?
Australian study 87 Klinefelter individuals when identified and treated at a young age showed benefits in symptom management COMPARED TO THOSE DIAGNOSED IN ADULTHOOD
Who created the degrees of constancy
Martin et al
According to Kohlberg why does a childs understanding of gender develop with age?
Biological maturation
(as the brain matures, so does thinking)
Why is does the BSRI have validity
Test-retest reliability found that there were similar scores with a follow up group that was asked to do the BSRI
What is a disadvantage of cultural similarities?
Suggests a biological basis for gender influences
