gender Flashcards
social learning theory- reinforcement ao1
Direct reinforcement e.g. a dad buys his son ice cream and then praises him when he has played football
Indirect reinforcement e.g. child learns acceptable and unacceptable behaviour and it is learnt vicariously
ao3 slt reinforcement
-research support- found dads more liekly reinforce behaviour on sons Fagot found 21/25 mth old kids made fun of others for laying wrong gender specific toys. Smith and Lloyd= boys encouraged adventurous behaviour and hammer shaped rattles showing reinforce behaviour they think right for their gender
x disputing research- little evidence gender specific roles reinforced. some claim boys punished for aggression (bio nature so innate) bio explanation overrides reinforcement / child may be imitating way parent see the most acts rather than parent the same sex
ao1 slt cultural influences
1935- Margaret mead claim behaviour of m+f determined by culture and found that
Arapesh tribe- both caring style (associated with females in west)
Chambri- f assertive and independant m emotional and nurturant
Biwat- m+f assertive neither took up caring role
ao3 slt cultural influence
research support- traditional societies women house makers due to culture+ religious pressures which may mean study still applies to modern society BUT done in 1935
x research issues w/mead work- findings matched too perfectly- biased or influenced?
x bio more important than cultural - aggression higher in m but segall says was used to distinguish males by social constructs . Mead argues gender determined by culture in but may be innate behaviour
ao1 slt media influence
west= males dominant and assertive females dainty and delicate
research found car adverts feature men domestic products feature women helping child create gender role stereotype influence perception of m+f roles
Williams introduced tv in ‘Notel’ and 2 controls nearby had tv. found notel people began change gender attitudes to match gender stereotypes on tv. Williams thinks due to usa portraying men and womens roles
ao3 slt media influence
-theoretical basis. Bond and Drogs found +correlation between time spent watching Jersey Shore and permissive attitudes towards casual sex=media cultivates people’s perception of reality affecting gender behaviour.
x causal relationship? Durkin argues family norms are bigger influence. If media representation doesn’t confirm gender roles held by the family, likely to be rejected, if confirms gender roles, norms are reinforced to child. This suggests the media may be a secondary influence.
x difficult to distinguish if media affects development of gender concepts or if other factors (e.g. cultural norms, biological factors or different media types) influence. The ‘Freestyle project’ found that children’s attitudes shifted away from gender role stereotypes when male and female roles were switched in programmes. This suggests media and TV in particular influence children’s attitudes.
ao1 psychodynamic explanation
Freud- kids born gender neutral in phallic stage (4-5) develop gender
identification=resolution to oedipus/electra as identify w/ same sec parent playing role in stereotype
internalisation=child takes all on board, siblings complicate process as have different experiences with parents so diff level of masc+fem
oediupus comlex= boy deisres mum, incestual feelings, want to marry someone like mum, scared of castration from dad
electra complex= girl loves mum but libido directed to dad and wants dads attention. develop penis envy but this not conscious.
ao3 psychodynamic explanation
x outdated- done in 1980s families more blended now. also suggests atyical family affect gender identity but Bas and Sandford found lesbian family under less oressure to conform typical stereotype
x lacks empirical evidence- no proof fear castration so can’t be falsified. Kohlberg suggests gender identity occurs before freud says and he has empirical evidence
x no reliability done on case studies so subjective as cant be replicated
ao1 gender schema theory
2-3 get schema about world around them which outlines how gender expected and should behave
develop in group (same gender) out group (other gender) schemas
kids have active role in development
ao3 gender schema theory
supporting research- found kid either showed schema consitency (girl play doll) schema inconsistency (girl play gun) Brabard et al 4-9 yr olds play toys thought match gender played either label girl or boy toy despite being gender neutral
cultural differences- explains how schema transmitted through society and explains why gender differences in diff cultures. BUT focuses on child as individual rather than social group so may view child behaviour in ethnocentric manner
ao1 for cog explanation gender
change in child thinking is universal + due to maturation
kKohlberg theory= gender identity 2-3 child doesnt think gender fixed gender stability 4-5 know gender fixed but can’t apply logic to others gender constancy 6-7+ know gender stable and consistent
ao3 gender cog explanation
research support- Munroe et al - children progress through same stages when compared to other cultures showing stages bio driven Slaby and Frey found kids in stage 3 looked to same sex model showing consistency
x fails to account for socialisation process in gender development- Bussey and Bandura say imitation and identification play more influential role in gender. cog not full explanation
ao3 for bio explanation gender
supporting research-Lombardo high testosterone in foetal development associated high impulsivity later life. shows crucial role Cambridge autism research centre- high testosterone link ability maintain eye contact
supporting evidence- Doner, rats sexual behaviour be stimulate or abolished by implanting sex hormones or create certain lesions. show nature affects sex/gender BUT too simplistic- change behaviour when learn child’s sex. hard to separate nature from nurture which can affect gender
ao1 for bio explanation
hormones released from embryonic gonads m+f. m sex hormones aka androgens. SRY gene found on Y chromosome creates m reproductive system inhibits development of f anatomical structure
Puberty cause difference between m+f as prepare for future reproduction
oxytocin in m+f. ‘love hormone’ reduces stress. in f released in childbirth to assist with contraction and used in breastfeeding
ao1 atypical gender development
gender identity not congruent with sex assigned
diagnosed gender dysphoria= mark difference between egnder expressed and what others would assigm for 6 mths- treated by psychotherapy, hormone therapy, surgery
Krujever et al transgender brains hard wired different. Swaab found by rats that testosterone affects foetal brain + gender identity both biological
Coates et al - gender dysphoria present with anxiety+ emotional difficulties- has GD led to anxiety comorbidity link?
