Gender

Question 1

Sex-role stereotypes

Answer 1

Expectations/pre-conceived ideas of what is ‘typical’ male and female behaviours. These may change over time and between/within cultures, and are communicated in many ways, e.g. through parents, at school, in the media.

Question 2

Gender

Answer 2

Psychological sense of feeling masculine or feminine. It’s influenced by psychological and social factors, the role of nature and nurture play a part, and is more fluid and open to change.

Question 3

Sex

Answer 3

biological aspects of being male (XY) and female (XX). Includes chromosomes, hormones and anatomy.

Question 4

Gender dysphoria

Answer 4

Most people’s sex and gender correspond. However, some experience feelings of a mismatch between biological sex and psychological generalised.

Question 5

Androgyny

Answer 5

‘andro’ meaning male, and ‘gyny’ meaning female. Sandra Bet first introduced the concept of psychological androgyny, arguing that a person can show both masculine and feminine traits. Ben also argued that androgyny is a psychologically healthy position, as people avoid fixed sex-role stereotypes.

Question 6

Bem Sex Role Inventory

Answer 6

Bem tested her ideas about androgyny by creating a psychological test, known as the BSRI. The test includes 20 masculine traits, 20 feminine traits, and 20 neutral items (distractors). When completing the inventory, and individual has to rate themselves on each trait using a 7-point Likert scale, where 1 means never or almost never true and 7 means almost always true. The scores for masculine and feminine traits calculated provide a score for felinity, masculinity and androgyny.

Question 7

Bem suggests that androgyny is advantageous in society as it means…

Answer 7

people have the traits needed to cope with a range of situations. Those who score highly on only one scale have a more limited range of skills.

Question 8

Several studies suggest that environmental factors are the cause of psychological androgyny - Weisner and Wilson-Mitchell (1990)

Answer 8

Compared children raised in families that put an emphasis on traditional gender roles with children raised in families that put an emphasis on traditional gender roles with children raised in families that actively downplayed traditional gender roles. They found that androgyny was higher in children who had been encouraged to ignore traditional gender roles.

Question 9

Other researchers have argued that androgyny is more likely to be a lifestyle choice.

Answer 9

As Bem suggested, psychologically androgynous people have the advantage of being able to use the best masculine traits as well as the best feminine traits.

Question 10

However, the BSRI is considered to be a reductionist theory because…

Answer 10

it reduces femininity and masculinity to a single score. It is also based on outdates views, i.e. traits that were desirable in the 1970s.

Question 11

Biological psychology says gender differences result from sex differences.

Answer 11

• Biological psychology argues that psychological or behavioural differences between males and females can be explained by differences in brain development and brain activity between males and females.
• these biological differences between males and females are caused by sex chromosomes, which determine the sex which a foetus develops in the womb, and by sex hormones which are secreted by the body.

Question 12

One strength of Bem’s work is that androgyny is measured quantitatively.

Answer 12

Bem’s numerical approach is useful for research purposes when it is necessary, e.g. to quantify a DV in research study. However Janet Spence (1984) argues that there is more to gender than a set of behaviour typical of one gender or the other, so qualitative methods offer a better way of analysing gender. One compromise is to combine different scales. For example, the Personal attribute questionnaire (PAQ) adds another dimension to Bem’s masculinity-femininity dimension.
- This suggests that both quantitative together with qualitative approaches may be useful for studying different aspects of androgyny.

Question 13

One limitation of the BSRI is that people may not have insight into their degree of masculinity, femininity or androgyny.

Answer 13

Asking people to rate themselves on a questionnaire relies on people having and understanding of their personality and behaviour that they may not necessarily have. Gender is a social construct which may be more open to interpretation than e.g. sex. Furthermore, the questionnaire’s scoring system is subjective and people’s application of the 7-point scale may differ.
- This suggests that the BSRI may not be an objective, scientific way of assessing masculinity, femininity or androgyny.

Question 14

Chromosomes

Answer 14

Found in the nucelus of living cells and carrying information in the form of genes. The 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex.

Question 15

Hormone

Answer 15

A biochemical substance that circulates in the blood but only affects target organs. They are produced in large quantities but disappear quickly. Their effects are very powerful.

Question 16

Testosterone

Answer 16

A hormone from the androgen group that is produced mainly in the male testes (and in smaller amounts in the female ovaries). Associated with aggressiveness.

Question 17

Oestrogen

Answer 17

The primary female hormone, playing an important role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.

Question 18

Oxytocin

Answer 18

A hormone which causes contraction of the uterus during labour and stimulates lactation.

Question 19

One limitation of biological accounts is that they ignore the role of social factors in gender-related behaviour.

Answer 19

Geert Hofstede et al. (2010) claim that gender roles around the world are much more a consequence of social norms than biology. These researchers equate notions of masculinity and felinity with whether whole cultures are individualist or collectivist. Countries that place individual competition and independence above the needs of community are, according to Hofstede et al., more masculine in their outlook. This would include advanced capitalist societies, such as the US and UK. Consequently, traditional masculine traits will be more highly valued within these societies.
- This challenges biological explanations of gender behaviour and suggests social factors may ultimately be more important in shaping gender behaviour and attitudes.

Question 20

Another limitation of biological explanations of gender is that they are reductionist.

Answer 20

Accounts that reduce gender to the level of chromosomes and hormones have been accused of ignoring or underplaying alternative explanations.
- The cognitive approach would draw attention to the influence of thought processes such as schema. Even though changes in thought processes may come about through maturation of the developing brain, they are not adequately explained by the biological model.
- In addition, the psychodynamic approach would acknowledge maturation as a factor but point to the importance of childhood experiences such as interaction within the family.
- This suggests that gender is more complex than its biological influences alone.

Question 21

Atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 21

Any sex chromosome pattern that deviated from the usual XX/XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms.

Question 22

Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 22

A syndrome affecting males in which an individual’s genotype has an extra X chromosome (in addition to XY), characterised by a tall thin physique, small infertile testes, and enlarged breasts.

Question 23

Turner’s syndrome

Answer 23

A chromosomal disorder in which affected women have only one X chromosome (denoted as XO), causing developmental abnormalities and infertility.

Question 24

Physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s

Answer 24

• reduced body hair compared to XY male.
• breast development at puberty (gynaecomastia)
• ‘softening’ or ‘rounding’ of body contours.
• long gangly limbs, underdeveloped genitals
• problems with co-ordination and general clumsiness.

Question 25

Psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s

Answer 25

• poorly developed language skills and reading ability.
• passive, shy and lack interest in sexual activity.

Question 26

Physical characteristics of Turner’s

Answer 26

• don’t have menstrual cycle (amenorrhoea), ovaries don’t develop = infertile.
• Don’t develop breasts at puberty and have broad ‘shield’ chest.
• low set ears and ‘webbed’ neck
• high waist-to-hip ratio in that hips aren’t much bigger than waist.

Question 27

Psychological characteristics of Turner’s

Answer 27

• higher than average reading ability.
• performance on spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks is often lower than average.
• socially immature, have trouble relating to peers and experience difficulty ‘fitting in’.

Question 28

One strength of research into atypical sex chromosomes is its contribution to the nature-nurture debate.

Answer 28

By comparing people who have these syndromes with chromosome typical individuals it becomes possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the 2 groups. It might be logically inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are a direct result of abnormal chromosomal structure.
- This supports the view that innate ‘nature’ influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.
- However, it may be that environmental and social influences are more responsible for the behavioural differences. E.g. social immaturity seen in Turner’s may arise from them being treated ‘immaturely’ by people around them. Parents, teachers and others may react to the prepubescent appearance in a way that encourages immature behaviour and this may have an indirect impact upon their performance at school (learning and developmental problems identified)
- This shows that it could be wrong to assume that psychological and behavioural differences in people with atypical sex chromosome patterns are due to nature.

Question 29

Another strength of research is it application to managing the syndromes.

Answer 29

Research into atypical sex chromosome patterns is likely to lead to earlier and more accurate diagnoses of Turner’s and Klinefelter’s as well as more positive outcomes in the future.
- An Australian study of 87 individuals with Klinefelter’s showed that those who had been identified and treated from very young age experienced significant benefits in terms of managing the syndrome, compared to those who had been diagnosed in adulthood.
- suggests that increased awareness of atypical chromosome patterns does have a useful real-world application.

Question 30

Gender identity

Answer 30

A child recognises that they are a boy or a girl and possesses the ability to label others as such. In Kohlberg’s theory, gender identity is acquired around 2 years.

Question 31

Gender stability

Answer 31

Happens at 4 years. A child understands that their own gender is fixed and they will be a man or woman when they are older.

Question 32

Gender constancy

Answer 32

Usually reached by 6-7 tears. A child realises that gender remains the same over time and situations. They begin to identify with people of their own gender and start to behave in stereotypically gender-appropriate ways.

Question 33

Kohlberg’s (1966) cognitive-developmental theory of gender

Answer 33

is based on the idea that a child’s understanding of gender becomes more sophisticated with age - biological maturation, not experience.

Question 34

One strength of Kohlberg’s stage theory is evident suggests that gender stereotyping does emerge around the age of 6 (gender constancy) as he produced.

Answer 34

Damon (1977) told children a story about George, a boy who liked to play with dolls. 4yr olds sad it was fine for George to play with dolls if he wanted to, but 6yr olds said it was wrong. They had gone beyond understanding what boys and girls do, to developing rules about what they ought to do (gender stereotyping).
- Suggests that children who have achieved constancy have formed rigid stereotypes regarding gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 35

A limitation of Kohlberg’s theory is that other researchers have suggested there may be different degrees of gender constancy.

Answer 35

Martin et al. (2002) praise Kohlberg’s theory for recognising that children’s understanding of their own and other people’s gender guides their thoughts behaviour. They point out though that exactly when and how this understanding affects children’s gender-related behaviour remains unclear. Martin et al. suggests there may be different degrees of gender constancy. An initial degree may orient children to the importance of gender - in choosing friends or seeking information - this may develop before age of 6 (as Bussey and Bandura study suggests).
- A second degree of constancy may heighten children’s responsiveness to gender norms, particularly under conditions of conflict, such as choosing appropriate clothes or attitudes.
- This suggests that the acquisition of constancy may be a more gradual process and may begin earlier than Kohlberg thought.

Question 36

Gender schema

Answer 36

An organised set of beliefs and expectation related to gender that are derived from experience. Such scheme guide a person’s understanding of their own gender and stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour in general.

Question 37

Like Kohlberg’s theory, Martin and Halverson’s (1981) account is a cognitive developmental theory which argues that…

Answer 37

children’s understanding of gender changes with age (it is ‘developmental’).

Question 38

Gender schema theory shares Kohlberg’s view that children develop their understanding of gender by…

Answer 38

actively structuring their own learning, rather than by passively observing and imitating role models (SLT)

Question 39

Schema

Answer 39

Mental constructs that develop via experience and are used by our cognitive system to organise knowledge around particular topics.

Question 40

According to Martin and Halverson, once a child has established gender identity around the age of 2-3- years, they will begin to…

Answer 40

search the environment for information that encourages development of gender schema.
- This contrasts with Kohlberg’s view that this process only begins after they have progressed through all 3 stages, around age 7 with gender constancy.

Question 41

Ingroup information better remembered.

Answer 41

Children tend to have a better understanding of the schema that are appropriate to their own gender. This is consistent with the idea that children pay more attention to information relevant to their gender identity, rather than that of other gender (outgroup).

Question 42

One strength of the gender schema theory is that its key principles are supported by evidence.

Answer 42

Martin and Halverson’s (1983) own study found that children under 6yrs were more likely to remember photographs of stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour than photographs of gender inappropriate behaviour when tested a week later. Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them so that the gender behaviour was not appropriate.
- provides support for gender schema theory which predicts that children under 6yrs would do this (in contrast with Kohlberg who predicted this would only happen when children are older).

Question 43

One limitation of gender schema theory is that gender identity probably develops earlier than Martin and Halverson suggested.

Answer 43

A longitudinal study of 82 children (Zosuls et al. 2009) looked at the onset of gender identity. Data was obtained from twice weekly reports from mothers on their children’s language forage 9-21 months, alongside videotaped analysis of the children at play. The key measure of gender identity was taken to be how and when children labelled themselves as ‘boy’ or ‘girl’. This occurred, on average, at 19 months - almost as soon as children begin to communicate, which suggests that children actually have a gender identity before this but just don’t communicate it.
- This suggests that Martin and Halverson may have underestimated children’s ability to use gender labels about themselves.

Question 44

However, it may not be appropriate to argue about septic ages for Martin and Halverson’s theory.

Answer 44

They suggest that the key point is the shifts in a child’s thinking and that the ages are averages rather than absolutes. It is possible that many children may move through stages quicker or slower than others. It is the sequence of development that is more important.
- This suggests that Zosuls et al.’s findings is not fundamental criticism of the theory.

Question 45

Another strength is that gender schema theory can account for cultural differences in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.

Answer 45

Cherry (2019) argues that gender schema not only influence how people process information but also what counts as culturally-appropriate gender behaviour.
- Traditional cultures, that believe women should take a nurturing role and me should pursue a career, will raise children who form schema that a consistent with this view. In societies where perceptions of gender have less rigid boundaries, children are more likely to acquire more fluid gender schema.
- Martin and Halverson’s theory can explain how gender schema are transmitted between members of a society and how cultural differences in gender development come about.
- This contrasts with some other explanations of gender development, such as psychodynamic theory, which suggests gender identity is more driven by unconscious biological urges.

Question 46

Oedipus complex

Answer 46

Freud’s explanation of how a boy resolves his love for his mother and feelings of rivalry towards his father by identifying with his father

Question 47

Electra complex

Answer 47

A term proposed by the Neo-Freudian Carl Jung which refers to a process similar to Oedipus complex. In girls, an attraction to an envy of their father is reviled through identification with their mother.

Question 48

Identification

Answer 48

A desire to be associated with a particular person or group often because the person/group possesses certain desirable characteristics.

Question 49

Internalisation

Answer 49

An individual adopts the attitudes and/or behaviour of another.

Question 50

Freud’s general developmental theory sees children pass through 5 biologically-driven psychosexual stages.

Answer 50

The 3rd stage - phallic stage - is when gender development occurs between 3-6yrs.

Question 51

Freud - Little Hans

Answer 51

Hans was a 5yr old boy with a morbid fear of being bitten by a horse. Hans’s fear appeared to have stemmed from an incident when he had seen a horse collapse and die in the street. However, Freud’s interpretation was that Hans’s fear of being bitten represented his fear of castration. Freud suggested that Hans had transferred his fear of his father onto horses via the unconscious defence mechanism of displacement.

Question 52

One limitation is Freud’s inadequate account of women’s development.

Answer 52

Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him and his notion of penis envy has been criticised as reflection the androcentric Victorian era during which he lived where men held so much power.
- Karen Horney (1942) argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is men’s experience of ‘womb envy’ - a reaction to women’s ability to nurture and sustain life. Horney argued that penis envy (like womb envy) was a result of cultural rather than biological factors.
- This challenges the idea that women’s gender development is founded on a desire to want to be like a man (an androcentric bias).

Question 53

Psychodynamic explanation lacks scientific credibility.

Answer 53

Freud used subjective case studies, and many of his concepts (e.g. penis envy) are untestable because they are largely unconscious. This contrasts sharply with other explanations of gender that are based on objective, verifiable evidence derived from controlled lab studies.
- According to the philosopher of science Karl Popper (1959), this makes Freud’s theory pseudoscientific as his key ideas cannot be falsified.
- This questions the validity of Freud’s theory as it isn’t based on sound scientific evidence.

Question 54

Social Learning Theory

Answer 54

A way of explaining behaviour that includes both direct and indirect reinforcement, combing learning theory with the role of cognitive factors.

Question 55

Direct reinforcement

Answer 55

Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating behaviour that is stereotypically gender-appropriate. The way in which children are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is called differential reinforcement -> child learns gender identity.

Question 56

Indirect (vicarious) reinforcement

Answer 56

If the consequences of another person’s behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to be imitated by a child.
- If the consequences of behaviour are unfavourable, behaviour is less likely to be imitated.

Question 57

Identification

Answer 57

Process whereby a child attaches themselves to a person who is seen to be ‘like me’ or to a person who ‘I want to be’. The person possesses qualities that the child sees as desirable -> role models.

Question 58

A strength of SLT approach is that key principle are supported by evidence.

Answer 58

A classical study by Smith and Lloyd (1978) involved babies aged 4-6mths who were dressed half in boys clothes and half the time in girls.
- When observed interacting with adults, babies assumed to be a ‘boy’ were more likely to be given a hammer-shaped rattle and encouraged to be adventurous and active. For girls, however, they were more likely to be handed a doll, told they were pretty and reinforced for being passive.
- suggests that gender-appropriate behaviour is stamped in at an early age through differential reinforcement, supporting SLT.

Question 59

SLT doesn’t provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age.

Answer 59

The general implication of SL approach is that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age. However, it seems illogical that children who are 2yrs learn in the same way as 9yr olds. This conflicts with Kohlberg’s theory that children don’t become active int their gender development until they reach gender constancy.
- suggests that influence of age and maturation on learning gender concepts is not a factors considered by SLT.

Question 60

Culture

Answer 60

The idea. customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society.

Question 61

Media

Answer 61

Communication channels, such as TV, film and books, through which news, entertainment, education and data are made available.

Question 62

Gender roles

Answer 62

A set of behaviours and attitudes that are considered typical of one gender and atypical of the other.

Question 63

Cultural differences (nurture) - Mead (1935), cultural groups in Papua New Guinea

Answer 63

• Arapesh were gentle and responsive (similar to stereotype of felinity in industrialised societies)
• Mungugumor were aggressive and hostile (similar to stereotype of masculinity)
• Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered ‘decorative’ (reverse of stereotype).
• suggests that might not be direct biological relationship between sex and gender, and gender roles may be culturally determined.

Question 64

Cultural similarities (nature) - David Buss (1995)

Answer 64

Found consistent patterns in mate preferences (a kind of gender role behaviour) in 37 countries across al continents. In all cultures, women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.

Question 65

The media provide role models who children may identify and want to imitate.

Answer 65

Children are more likely to select role models who are the same gender as them and who engage in stereotypically gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 66

Rigid stereotypes in media

Answer 66

A study of TV adverts by Furnham and Farragher (2000) found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional context whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
- Suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning gender-appropriate behaviour.

Question 67

Self-efficacy

Answer 67

Media also gives information to men and women in terms of the likely success, or otherwise, of adopting these behaviours. Seeing other people perform gender-appropriate behaviours increases a child’s belief that they are capable of carrying out such behaviours in the future.

Question 68

The influence of culture on changing gender roles is supported by evidence

Answer 68

Hofstede (2001) argues that in industrialised cultures the changing status and expectations of women are a function of their increasingly active role in the workplace and away from the domestic sphere. This has led to a breakdown of traditional stereotypes in advanced industrialised societies. In traditional societies women still occupy the role of house-maker as a result of social, cultural and religious pressures.
- suggests that gender roles are determined by cultural context.

Question 69

One limitation is that Mead’s cross-cultural research has since been criticised.

Answer 69

Mead has been accused of making generalisations based on a short period of study. Freeman (1983) conducted follow up and argued that Mead’s findings were flawed as she had been myself by some ppts, and her preconceptions of what she would find had influenced her reading of events = Observer bias and ethnocentrism.
- Mead’s interpretations may not have been objective and called into questions the conclusions she drew.

Question 70

A strength of research into media influence on gender roles is it has theoretical basis

Answer 70

Cultivation theory argues that the more time individuals spend ‘living’ in the media world, the more likely they are to believe that this reflects social reality. Bond and Drogos (2014) found a positive correlation between time spent watching reality TV and permissive attitudes towards casual sex.
- suggests the media ‘cultivates’ perception of reality and this affects gender behaviour.

Question 71

A limitation of gender roles and media is there may not be a causal relationship

Answer 71

Durkin (1985) argues that even young children aren’t passive and uncritical recipients of media messages. Norms within the child’s family may be the bigger determinant on the child’s gender attitudes and behaviour. If media representations confirm existing gender norms held by the family then these are likely to be reinforced in the child’s mind. If not, then such representations are likely to be rejected.
- suggests that media influences are secondary to other influences, such as family.

Question 72

Gender dysphoria

Answer 72

Used to describe when a person experiences discomfort or distress because there is a mismatch between sex assigned at birth and their gender identity.

Question 73

Brain sex theory - one biological explanation suggests that gender dysphoria has a basis in brain structure - The bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BST)

Answer 73

This structure is involved in emotional responses and also in male sexual behaviour in rats. This really is larger in men than women and has been found to be female-sized in transgender females.
- this leads to the suggestion that people with gender dysphoria have a BST which is the size of the gender they identify with, not size of biological sex.

Question 74

Genetic factors - Coolidge et al. (2002) assessed 157 twin pairs for evidence of gender dysphoria.

Answer 74

The researchers found that 62% of the variance could be accounted for by genetic factors. This suggests there is a strong heritable component to gender dysphoria.

Question 75

one limitation of brain sex theory is its central claims have been challenged - Hulshoff Pol et al. (2006) studied changes in transgender individual’s brains using MRI scan taken during hormone treatment.

Answer 75

The scans showed the size of BST changed significantly over that period.
- In the studies by Kruijver and Zhou at al. the BST was examined post-mortem and after transgender individuals had received hormone treatment during gender reassignment treatment.
- suggests that differences may have been an effect of hormone therapy.

Question 76

One strength is that evidence suggests there may be other brain differences associated with gender dysphoria.

Answer 76

Rametti et al. (2011) studied another sexually dimorphic aspect of the brain - white matter. There are regional differences in the proportion of white matter in male and female brains. They analysed the brains in both male and female transgender individuals, before hormone treatment. In most cases the amount and distribution of white matter corresponded more closely to gender the individuals identified themselves as being rather than biological sex.
- there are early differences in the brains of transgender individuals.

Question 77

Social perspective

Answer 77

argues that gender identity doesn’t reflect underlying biological differences between people, and instead these concepts are ‘invented’ by societies.
- For individuals who experience gender dysphoria, the gender ‘confusion’ arises because society forces people to be either a man or a woman. From this perspective, gender dysphoria isn’t a pathological condition but a social phenomenon which arises when people are required to choose one of two paths.

Question 78

McClintock (2015) cites the case of individuals with a genetic condition (5-alpha-reductase deficiency) in Sambia of New Guinea

Answer 78

This causes some biological males to be categorised as gils at birth because they have a labia and clitoris. At puberty their genitals change because of the large increase in testosterone. This genetic variation is common among Sambia, and it was routinely accepted that some people are men, women, or kwolu-aatmwol. Since this culture has had contact with other cultures however knoll-aatmwol are now judged as having pathological form of gender dysphoria.

Question 79

Psychoanalytic theory - Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships within family as the cause of gender dysphoria.

Answer 79

They argue that gender dysphoria in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The boy fantasies of symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety and danger of separation is removed.
- the consequence of this is that the boy becomes the mother and adopts a woman’s gender identity.
- Stroller (1973) reports that in interviews, GD biological males displayed overly close relationships with others suggesting stronger female identification and conflicted gender identity in long term.

Question 80

A strength of the social constructionism approach is that not all cultures have 2 genders.

Answer 80

Some cultures recognise more than 2 genders, e.g. fa’fafine of Samoa. This is a challenge to traditional binary classifications of male and female. The fact that the increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is only now beginning to catch up with the lived experience of many
- suggests that gender identity (and dysphoria) is best seen as social construction rather than biological fact.

Question 81

One limitation is there are issues with psychoanalytic theory of gender dysphoria.

Answer 81

Ovesey and Person’s explanation doesn’t provide an adequate account of gender dysphoria in biological females as the theory only applies to transgender women.
- Rekers (1986) found that gender dysphoria in those amab is more likely to be associated with absence of father than dear of separation from mother.
- psychoanalytic theory doesn’t provide comprehensive account of gender dysphoria.