Gender Flashcards
when a psychologist uses the word sex what do they mean
the biological differences between male and females, sex is assigned from conception due to the inheritance of chromosomes
whats the chromosomes for males
XY
whats the chromosomes for females
XX
when a psychologist uses the word gender what do they mean
the psychological distinction between masculine and feminine personality traits, this may not match a persons biological sex
name 3 traits considered as masculine
aggressive, ambitious and dominant
name 3 traits considered as feminine
cheerful, soft spoken and gullible
what is a sex role stereotype
set of expectations of appropriate male and females behaviours shared by a culture, they are used as a short cut in understanding what behaviours are expected from ourselves and others
where do psychologists argue the sex role stereotypes come from
cognitive, SLT and psychodynamic processes
what is the name when someone had high male and female traits
androgynous
what is androgyny
having a high and balanced mix of both masculine and feminine personality traits,
What is it called when someone has low masculine and feminine traits
undifferentiated
what is meant by sex typed
when gender and sex match
what is cross-sex typed
when gender and sex don’t match
what did sandra bem do in 1974
developed the bem sex role inventory as a measure of androgyny
explain the bem sex role inventory
participants rate themselves on a 7 point scale on 60 characteristics, they them score on 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated)
20 traits M, 20 F and 20 neutral
what did bem argue
that androgynous people are more psychologically healthier than others
what did bem find
From measuring 561 and 356 female students using BSRI questionnaires be, found
that most males and females were characterised with traits the same as their gender
but 34% male and 27% females were androgynous
what is an issue with bems study
didn’t include a category for those with few masculine or feminine traits, an undifferentiated type not added till 1981
what did Adams and Sherer find in 1985 to support bems theory of androgyny
studies 101 undergrad uni students gender using the BSRI with other personality trait tests
research found that both masculine males and females were better adjusted on measures of assertiveness and self-efficacy
name some positive evaluationS for bems BSRI
high test-retest reliability, when tested again participants tend to get the same score
separated gender identity and biological sex leading to positive social change reducing discrimination due to non gender normative behaviour
what is some negative evaluations of bems BSRI
lacks temporal validity, some traits don’t match todays current understanding of gender
BRSI score may oversimplify an individuals gender identity
established using western student sample
Smith and Lloyd (1978) study
(Evaluation of sex role stereotypes)
new mothers were recorded playing with a strangers 6-month old baby
these actor babies were male and female but dresses either in sex appropriate or cross-sex clothes
a range of toys were provided that were masculine, feminine or neutral
new mothers encouraged physical activity in males more than females
Smith and Lloyd (1978) study findings
suggests adults do hold sex role stereotypes about appropriate gendered behaviour and socialise children into that behaviour from infancy
what is gender dysphoria
when people feel that their gender and sex don’t match
when does gender dysphoria occur
when this causes the person distress such as anxiety and they want to change their stress
how is gender dysphoria different to cross-dressing
people with GD cross-dress, but lots of people who cross-dress just enjoy it and they don’t want to change their sex
some people with GD live full-time as the sex other than their birth sex, and this may involve having surgery
what is an explanations for gender dysphoria
brain functioning of these individuals is more typical of the other sex (not bio sex)
why do some psychologist believe M/F develop differently
exposed to different levels of sex hormones in the womb
an individual might develop brain function typical of the other sex if they have unusual hormone levels during brain development (e.g if a girls testosterone levels are higher than usual)
what are some of the strengths biological explanation of gender dysphoria
Hare et al (2009) found transgender women were more likely than cisgender men to have particular version of an androgen receptor gene
Krujiver et al (2000) found that the number of neurones in a region of the brain called BSTc in transgender women was similar to number in cisgender women typically half as many as in cisgender men
what are some of the weaknesses biological explanation of gender dysphoria
most girls with CAH who produce more testosterone than usual, don’t develop gender dysphoria
other factors many also have an effect on gender development such as social influence
Chung et al (2002) found sex differences in the BSTc didn’t appear until adulthood so they may be a result of gender developing not the cause
what other theory has also been used to explain gender dysphoria
social learning theory
how does social learning theory relate to gender dysphoria
if a child imitates a role model of the other sex or has associated with the other sex reinforced then they may develop a gender that doesn’t match their sex
what are the 2 studies that support SLT in terms of gender dysphoria
Rekers and Lovaas (1974): argued in a case study of a boy who behaved in stereotypically feminine way that GD could be resolved through reinforcing ‘gender appropriate’ behaviours
Rekers (1977) links suggestion that individuals gender identity should be changed to match society’s expectations to the idea that homosexuality was a disorder that could be ‘cured’
what are the 2 main aspects to the bio approach that must be considered
chromosomes and hormones
describe chromosomes
46, (23 pairs) biological threads inside the nucleus of cells
they carry the genetic info that codes for physical and behavioural characteristics
what is the chromosomes role in sex
23rd chromosome pair determines the biological sex (male XY, female XX)
testes develop due to an area on the Y chromosome
testes produce androgens (male hormone) resulting in other sex differences
what is the chromosomes role in gender
genetic differences between bio male and female, chromosomes are thought to result in observable behavioural variations
this is by coding for different neuronal structures and hormone levels that go to influence gender expression
what are hormones
bio-chemical messengers that are released from glands into bloodstream
when they are in the bloodstream they can influence the function of other bodily organs and systems
describe testosterone
androgen (male hormone) 10x more in males than females
what is testosterones role in sex
development of male foetus (due to SRY gene) secondary sexual characteristics (large muscles) in adulthood
what is testosterones role in gender
linked to higher levels of aggression, a trail thought to be masculine in nature
describe oestrogen
female sex hormone in much higher conc in females
what is oestrogens role in sex
regulation of menstrual cycle and development of secondary sexual characteristics
what is oestrogens role in gender
high levels after giving birth linked to maternal caregiving behaviour and reduction in oestrogen levels implicated in feelings of irritability
describe oxytocin
hormone produced in higher quantity in females (same amount in both sex’s during intercourse)
whats oxytocins role in sex
stimulates lactation in females
reduces effect of stress hormone cortisol
whats oxytocins role in gender
caring/attachment behaviour in females and pair bonding behaviours in both genders
what was van beijsterveldt (2006) study to support the biological approach to gender
childhood identity data was collected from over 8000 twin pairs as part of a longitudinal twin study in the Netherlands
this data revealed that 70% of the variance in gender identity was due to genetic factors suggesting that atypical gender is heritable
females with female co-twin more likely to be cross gendered than those with male co-twin
Theisen (2019) study to prove biological approach to gender
sequenced genome of 13 transgender ppl and compared these to 88 control
finding 21 gene variations associated with oestrogen reception in areas of the brain shown to become sexually dimorphic before birth
suggesting sex hormone exposure before birth results in sexually dimorphic brain development contributing to GD
whats meant by sexually dimorphic
different between males and females
whats some animal studies showing evidence for the role pf sex hormones
female rats stop displaying caring behaviour towards their babies whilst given a drug to stop oxytocin and oestrogen production
male castrated mice show reduced aggressive biting that returned to normal levels when injected with testosterone
female mice also increased in aggressive biting when injected with testosterone
what are the evaluations with using hormones to describe gender differences
- describing hormones as male or female is overly simplistic
a form of oestrogen called oestradiol is critical for male sexuality
+ studies that couldn’t be preformed on humans care carried out on animals, however generalisation might not be valid
+ could lead to hormonal therapies
give 2 examples of atypical sex chromosome patterns
Kilnefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome
whats an atypical sex chromosome pattern
variations in the 23rd pair of chromosomes from the typical XY (male) or XX (female) pattern
whats the atypical chromosome pattern for klinefelters syndrome
XXY, biologically male 1/660 males have it
whats the atypical chromosome pattern for turners syndrome
X0 no second chromosome in 23rd pair bio female effects 1/2000 girls
physical characteristics from Klinefelters syndrome
reduced facial hair, tall, long limbs, small testes and development of breast tissue
psychological characteristics from Klinefelters syndrome
cognitive difficulties such as dyslexia, can be easy to upset but also passive and showing aggressive outbursts
physical characteristics from turners syndrome
no menstrual cycle
short
limited breast development
wide chest
immature appearance
psychological characteristics from turners syndrome
high lvls of verabl skill
low visual ability
socially immature
evaluation for using KS and TS atypical chromosomes in bio explanation for gender
has lead to medical interventions that has improved the lives of people with these conditions
oestrogen therapy in females with TS has been shown to help normalise physical development during puberty increasing height and breast development
testosterone therapy in males with KS helps develop facial hair improves energy levels as well
evaluation against using KS and TS atypical chromosomes in bio explanation for gender
need to make sure they dont read too much into the data
immature girls may be due to the environment they grew up in rather than atypical chromosomes
how can hormones affect your gender
they effect the way that the body develops and brain develops as well as how they function day to day
what is the syndrome where people produce too much testosterone
CAH
what does CAH cause
causes early sexual development in males but doesn’t have much effect otherwise
the behaviour of girls with this tends o be manualised e.g playing with ‘boy’ toys physically they tend too look more masculine and have ambiguous genitalia
what can oestrogen lead to in some women
premenstural tension (PMT) this can leave a women feeling emotional, irritable and aggressive
what does Easteal (1991) believe about PMT
that it could be the reason behind crime in some women
what is the hormone oxytocin associated with
bonding and attachment and with social recognition
what does rimmele et al (2009) believe about oxytocin
found that incraesed levels improved males ability to recognise if they had seen a face before but didn’t improve their recognition of non-social images (objects)
who proposed cognitive development theory
piaget
what does cognitive development theory suggest
that children’s thoughts and views on the world changes as they develop
what did piaget propose
that children pass through several stages of development as they mature at each stage their thinking develops and they gain more complex cognitive abilities
what theory did kohlberg develop
theory of gender constancy
saying gender develops in a series of stages through processes of maturation, socialising and less ending ego centrism
what 3 stages did kohlberg identify
gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy
what is gender identity stage
the child becomes aware that they are male or female
begins to categorise other people as male and female before this stage they arent really aware of gender
during this stage they judge gender on superficial characteristics thinking gender might change
when does gender identity stage occur
between ages 2 and 3
what is the gender stability stage
the child realises that their gender will remain fixed over time however they many think that gender can change in different situations
when does the gender stability stage occur
between ages of 4 and 6
what is the gender constancy stage
the child becomes aware that gender remains fixed in different situations
at this point the child internalises their gender because they realise its permanent
they begin to develop their gender role looking to role models of their gender
when does gender constancy stage occur
around age 7
what are the strengths of kohlbergs stages of gender development theory
slaby and frey found that when watching a video of a man and women, children in later stages were more likely to be aware of gender than than those in earlier stages supporting that gender roles become important once they develop gender constancy
they also used interviews to try and determine if children aged 2-5.5 had developed gender identity gender stability and constancy results consistent with kohlbergs theory
what are the weaknesses of kohlbergs stages of gender development theory
criticised for ignoring the effects of social influences and conditioning
theory describes what happens not why
shalby and frey also found that boys were more likely to pay greater attention to people of their own gender than girls were which isnt explained by kohlbergs theory
what did Martin and Halverson develop in 1981
gender schema theory
what does gender schema theory suggest
how gender stereotyping helps learn what is and what isn’t appropriate for their gender
what does gender schema theory propose
by the age of 3 children have developed a basic gender identity they also have a gender scheme containing the child’s ideas about gender appropriate behaviour
what does gender schema theory say happens through observation
children continue to learn and gender appropriate behaviours and add them to their schema
whats a childs gender schema based on
concept of in-group and an out-group
what is the concept of an in-group and out-group
activities, objects and behaviours associated with their own sex are seen as an in group those with the opposite are the out-group
through reference to their in/out-group schema children show bias towards in group behaviours
what does having a gender schema help children to manage
all the info that they exposed to they can focus on processing info related to their in-group and filter out info related to their out group
what are the disadvantages for gender schema theory
reinforcing stereotypical gender roles can discourage children from showing interest in things related to their out group
as children got older they are capable of more complex cognition and understanding that their gender doesn’t limit them rigidly to out group and behaviours like the theory does
what is the evidence for gender schema theory
bradbard et al 1986
found that children were more likely to play with unfamiliar toys if they were described as being for their own gender so children show bias towards in group activities in their schema
whats the evidence against gender schema theory
campbell et al 2002
found that if a childrens awareness of their own gender and of gender stereotypes has no effect on how much they engaged in gender stereotypical behaviour
suggesting that having a gender schema isn’t the main factor in developing gender
what did freud say about gender
develops through identification and internalisation
who developed the psychodynamic explanation of gender
freud based on his ideas bout psychosexual development
what are the 5 psychosexual stages
oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital
when does freud say children develop gender
between 3 and 5 during phallic stage
what does freuds psychodynamic explanation of gender say
that a child becomes aware of the difference between males and females in phallic stage
in particular realise difference between male and female genitalia and initially think females have been castrated
leading to unconscious desires and anxiety eventually resulting in them identifying parent of their own sex
in the phallic stage what do boys experience
conflicting unconscious desires known as oedipus complex
what happens when boys experience oedipus compec
they start to romantically desire their mother and begin to feel aggressive and jealous towards their fathers becauses hes getting in the way
they know their father is more powerful so then believe they would castrate them if he found out about his desires
how do males deal with the oedipus compex
start to identify with their father and internalise him, as their superego this means that they develop a male gender identity
once they have developed their gender they deal with their desire for their mother by displacing it onto another women
while boys go through the Oedipus complex what do girls have
electra complex
what do girls experience in the electra complex
experience penis envy, they realise they have have no penis and wish that they had one, they start to desire their father because he has one
They feel hostile towards their mother because they are to blame for their castration, but also fear of losing their mother due to their feelings for their father
What happens after they have feelings for their father (Electra complex)
they repress these feelings and start to identify with their mother and internalise her as their super ego
meaning they develop a female gender identity
through developing their gender they repress desires for a penis and substitute it for desires for a baby
How did freud support his psychodynamic approach to gender
Little Hans
What was Freuds case study on little Hans
Little Hans was afraid of horses
according to his father, Hans developed an interest in his own penis (widdler) when he was around 3 and asked if his mother had one
Hans also reportedly dreamt he was married to his mother
when Hans was 3 and 1/2 years old his mother told him off for touching himself and threatened to cut it off
Freud thought that he displayed fear of his father onto horses
Freud said that his fear came from castration anxiety
What was freuds little Hans study based on
Around his correspondence with the boys father who reported to freuds conversations he’d has with Hans
what type of horses did little Hans dad look like
Horses with white blinkers
Black mouths
Why has freuds study been criticised
Its a subjective interpretation of behaviour can’t be scientifically tested had to support
Argued that he deliberately came up with interpretations
usually studied people with psychological problems so its unclear
What did Kirkpatrick et al study in (1981)
looked at the gender development of 40 children ages 5-12 half of the children had heterosexual mothers and the other half had lesbian mothers
they found no identifiable differences between the gender developments of the 2 groups
What does social learning theory say about gender development
suggests that we learn by observing and copying the behaviour of people around us
particularly imitate the behaviour of people we identify with
this learning can be passive or it can be active
what can social learning theory explain
how gender typical behaviours are learnt
what are the 2 aspects to learning gender typical behaviours (SLT)
one is that children identify with and imitate models of their own gender so males copy males ect and this behaviour becomes part of your gender role
the other aspect id learning through reinforcement for behaviour that is considered gender appropriate leading them to adopt the behaviour
there’s evidence that parents and peers react differently to children developing gender typical behaviour
how do the parents react
Rubin et al (1974) found that fathers used words like ‘soft’ and ‘beautiful’ to describe their daughters and words like ‘strong’ and ‘firm’ to describe sons
Hron-Steward (1988) found that adults were quicker to confront a crying baby girl than a boy mothers also more likely to help daughter complete a task rather than their son
what are there weaknesses for there SLT of gender development
doesn’t explain where stereotypical gender roles came from in the first place
smith and daglish (1977) found no correlation between how stereotypes parents views of gender appropriate behaviour were and how much their 1-2 yr old children showed gender typical behaviour
what may influence gender roles
the media (tv, film act)
responsibility for childcare
who studied influence of media on gender roles
williams (1986)
what was williams (1986) study
carried out a 2 year natural experiment in Canada
she looked at the effects of tv being introduced to a town (Notel) comparing it to near by town that already had tv (Multitle) she found gender stereotyping was higher at the start in M but then GS in N increased after the intro to tv
how has cross cultural research been used
to identify how gender roles differ between cultures
and help understand causes of gender roles
(similar=bio diff=social causes)
what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) do in their study
observed the behaviour of children in the USA, Mexico, Japan, India Philippines and kenya
what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) find in their study
found that gender behaviour was very similar to western stereotypes and they found that there were clear differences between male and female behaviour
in societies where children were expected to work towards the families girls made to look after siblings and do domestic work where as boys made to look after animals and very rarely did domestic work
what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) study suggest
similar gender roles across cultures suggesting there’s a bio explanation supporting nature side of the nature-nurture debate
who suggested a social eplanation to gender (cross-cultural research)
Margaret mead (1935)
looked at 3 tribes in Papua New Guinea and showed each tribe had different role for men and women
and also appeared differently to western world also different to each other
whats had about cross-cultural research
hard to do without involving some ethnocentric bias
what did Katz and Conner (1981) look at
80 different cultures they found that in 90% of them women had the main responsibility for child rearing
80 different cultures they found that in 90% of them women had the main responsibility for child rearing
whats the implications of this
occupation, finance and mobility
what did D’Andrade (1966) find in his study in 224 societies
men more likely to travel further from home, and be involves in weapon making and hunting
women more likely to repair clothes prepare food and make objects from home
What is a negative towards sex role stereotypes
Theory lacks temporal validity
what does cognitive explanations suggest
children’s understanding of gender actively develops directly seeking out learning experiences and intellectually organising concepts not passively responding to stimuli
in terms of gender schema theory, what are in groups
are the gender that the children belongs too and child focuses more on and develop a stronger understanding of stereotyped behaviour for their gender before a deeper understanding of the our group
general evaluations of cog approach of gender development
- bio theories suggest that gendered behaviour is due to innate processes resulting in instinctual behaviour that isn’t depended on schemas
- young children find it hard to communicate gender so much reply on inferences
- SLT states that boys have stronger sex typed stereotypes than girls due to greater social pressure
+ focus on cognitive is a sensible theoretical approach
