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Gender Flashcards

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1
Q

when a psychologist uses the word sex what do they mean

A

the biological differences between male and females, sex is assigned from conception due to the inheritance of chromosomes

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2
Q

whats the chromosomes for males

A

XY

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3
Q

whats the chromosomes for females

A

XX

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4
Q

when a psychologist uses the word gender what do they mean

A

the psychological distinction between masculine and feminine personality traits, this may not match a persons biological sex

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5
Q

name 3 traits considered as masculine

A

aggressive, ambitious and dominant

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6
Q

name 3 traits considered as feminine

A

cheerful, soft spoken and gullible

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7
Q

what is a sex role stereotype

A

set of expectations of appropriate male and females behaviours shared by a culture, they are used as a short cut in understanding what behaviours are expected from ourselves and others

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8
Q

where do psychologists argue the sex role stereotypes come from

A

cognitive, SLT and psychodynamic processes

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9
Q

what is the name when someone had high male and female traits

A

androgynous

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10
Q

what is androgyny

A

having a high and balanced mix of both masculine and feminine personality traits,

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11
Q

What is it called when someone has low masculine and feminine traits

A

undifferentiated

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12
Q

what is meant by sex typed

A

when gender and sex match

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13
Q

what is cross-sex typed

A

when gender and sex don’t match

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14
Q

what did sandra bem do in 1974

A

developed the bem sex role inventory as a measure of androgyny

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15
Q

explain the bem sex role inventory

A

participants rate themselves on a 7 point scale on 60 characteristics, they them score on 2 dimensions (masculinity-femininity and androgynous-undifferentiated)
20 traits M, 20 F and 20 neutral

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16
Q

what did bem argue

A

that androgynous people are more psychologically healthier than others

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17
Q

what did bem find

A

From measuring 561 and 356 female students using BSRI questionnaires be, found
that most males and females were characterised with traits the same as their gender
but 34% male and 27% females were androgynous

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18
Q

what is an issue with bems study

A

didn’t include a category for those with few masculine or feminine traits, an undifferentiated type not added till 1981

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19
Q

what did Adams and Sherer find in 1985 to support bems theory of androgyny

A

studies 101 undergrad uni students gender using the BSRI with other personality trait tests
research found that both masculine males and females were better adjusted on measures of assertiveness and self-efficacy

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20
Q

name some positive evaluationS for bems BSRI

A

high test-retest reliability, when tested again participants tend to get the same score
separated gender identity and biological sex leading to positive social change reducing discrimination due to non gender normative behaviour

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21
Q

what is some negative evaluations of bems BSRI

A

lacks temporal validity, some traits don’t match todays current understanding of gender
BRSI score may oversimplify an individuals gender identity
established using western student sample

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22
Q

Smith and Lloyd (1978) study
(Evaluation of sex role stereotypes)

A

new mothers were recorded playing with a strangers 6-month old baby
these actor babies were male and female but dresses either in sex appropriate or cross-sex clothes
a range of toys were provided that were masculine, feminine or neutral
new mothers encouraged physical activity in males more than females

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23
Q

Smith and Lloyd (1978) study findings

A

suggests adults do hold sex role stereotypes about appropriate gendered behaviour and socialise children into that behaviour from infancy

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24
Q

what is gender dysphoria

A

when people feel that their gender and sex don’t match

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25
Q

when does gender dysphoria occur

A

when this causes the person distress such as anxiety and they want to change their stress

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26
Q

how is gender dysphoria different to cross-dressing

A

people with GD cross-dress, but lots of people who cross-dress just enjoy it and they don’t want to change their sex
some people with GD live full-time as the sex other than their birth sex, and this may involve having surgery

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27
Q

what is an explanations for gender dysphoria

A

brain functioning of these individuals is more typical of the other sex (not bio sex)

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28
Q

why do some psychologist believe M/F develop differently

A

exposed to different levels of sex hormones in the womb
an individual might develop brain function typical of the other sex if they have unusual hormone levels during brain development (e.g if a girls testosterone levels are higher than usual)

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29
Q

what are some of the strengths biological explanation of gender dysphoria

A

Hare et al (2009) found transgender women were more likely than cisgender men to have particular version of an androgen receptor gene

Krujiver et al (2000) found that the number of neurones in a region of the brain called BSTc in transgender women was similar to number in cisgender women typically half as many as in cisgender men

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30
Q

what are some of the weaknesses biological explanation of gender dysphoria

A

most girls with CAH who produce more testosterone than usual, don’t develop gender dysphoria

other factors many also have an effect on gender development such as social influence
Chung et al (2002) found sex differences in the BSTc didn’t appear until adulthood so they may be a result of gender developing not the cause

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31
Q

what other theory has also been used to explain gender dysphoria

A

social learning theory

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32
Q

how does social learning theory relate to gender dysphoria

A

if a child imitates a role model of the other sex or has associated with the other sex reinforced then they may develop a gender that doesn’t match their sex

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33
Q

what are the 2 studies that support SLT in terms of gender dysphoria

A

Rekers and Lovaas (1974): argued in a case study of a boy who behaved in stereotypically feminine way that GD could be resolved through reinforcing ‘gender appropriate’ behaviours

Rekers (1977) links suggestion that individuals gender identity should be changed to match society’s expectations to the idea that homosexuality was a disorder that could be ‘cured’

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34
Q

what are the 2 main aspects to the bio approach that must be considered

A

chromosomes and hormones

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35
Q

describe chromosomes

A

46, (23 pairs) biological threads inside the nucleus of cells
they carry the genetic info that codes for physical and behavioural characteristics

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36
Q

what is the chromosomes role in sex

A

23rd chromosome pair determines the biological sex (male XY, female XX)
testes develop due to an area on the Y chromosome
testes produce androgens (male hormone) resulting in other sex differences

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37
Q

what is the chromosomes role in gender

A

genetic differences between bio male and female, chromosomes are thought to result in observable behavioural variations
this is by coding for different neuronal structures and hormone levels that go to influence gender expression

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38
Q

what are hormones

A

bio-chemical messengers that are released from glands into bloodstream
when they are in the bloodstream they can influence the function of other bodily organs and systems

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39
Q

describe testosterone

A

androgen (male hormone) 10x more in males than females

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40
Q

what is testosterones role in sex

A

development of male foetus (due to SRY gene) secondary sexual characteristics (large muscles) in adulthood

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41
Q

what is testosterones role in gender

A

linked to higher levels of aggression, a trail thought to be masculine in nature

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42
Q

describe oestrogen

A

female sex hormone in much higher conc in females

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43
Q

what is oestrogens role in sex

A

regulation of menstrual cycle and development of secondary sexual characteristics

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44
Q

what is oestrogens role in gender

A

high levels after giving birth linked to maternal caregiving behaviour and reduction in oestrogen levels implicated in feelings of irritability

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45
Q

describe oxytocin

A

hormone produced in higher quantity in females (same amount in both sex’s during intercourse)

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46
Q

whats oxytocins role in sex

A

stimulates lactation in females
reduces effect of stress hormone cortisol

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47
Q

whats oxytocins role in gender

A

caring/attachment behaviour in females and pair bonding behaviours in both genders

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48
Q

what was van beijsterveldt (2006) study to support the biological approach to gender

A

childhood identity data was collected from over 8000 twin pairs as part of a longitudinal twin study in the Netherlands
this data revealed that 70% of the variance in gender identity was due to genetic factors suggesting that atypical gender is heritable
females with female co-twin more likely to be cross gendered than those with male co-twin

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49
Q

Theisen (2019) study to prove biological approach to gender

A

sequenced genome of 13 transgender ppl and compared these to 88 control
finding 21 gene variations associated with oestrogen reception in areas of the brain shown to become sexually dimorphic before birth
suggesting sex hormone exposure before birth results in sexually dimorphic brain development contributing to GD

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50
Q

whats meant by sexually dimorphic

A

different between males and females

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51
Q

whats some animal studies showing evidence for the role pf sex hormones

A

female rats stop displaying caring behaviour towards their babies whilst given a drug to stop oxytocin and oestrogen production
male castrated mice show reduced aggressive biting that returned to normal levels when injected with testosterone
female mice also increased in aggressive biting when injected with testosterone

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52
Q

what are the evaluations with using hormones to describe gender differences

A
  • describing hormones as male or female is overly simplistic
    a form of oestrogen called oestradiol is critical for male sexuality
    + studies that couldn’t be preformed on humans care carried out on animals, however generalisation might not be valid
    + could lead to hormonal therapies
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53
Q

give 2 examples of atypical sex chromosome patterns

A

Kilnefelter’s syndrome and Turner’s syndrome

54
Q

whats an atypical sex chromosome pattern

A

variations in the 23rd pair of chromosomes from the typical XY (male) or XX (female) pattern

55
Q

whats the atypical chromosome pattern for klinefelters syndrome

A

XXY, biologically male 1/660 males have it

56
Q

whats the atypical chromosome pattern for turners syndrome

A

X0 no second chromosome in 23rd pair bio female effects 1/2000 girls

57
Q

physical characteristics from Klinefelters syndrome

A

reduced facial hair, tall, long limbs, small testes and development of breast tissue

58
Q

psychological characteristics from Klinefelters syndrome

A

cognitive difficulties such as dyslexia, can be easy to upset but also passive and showing aggressive outbursts

59
Q

physical characteristics from turners syndrome

A

no menstrual cycle
short
limited breast development
wide chest
immature appearance

60
Q

psychological characteristics from turners syndrome

A

high lvls of verabl skill
low visual ability
socially immature

61
Q

evaluation for using KS and TS atypical chromosomes in bio explanation for gender

A

has lead to medical interventions that has improved the lives of people with these conditions
oestrogen therapy in females with TS has been shown to help normalise physical development during puberty increasing height and breast development
testosterone therapy in males with KS helps develop facial hair improves energy levels as well

62
Q

evaluation against using KS and TS atypical chromosomes in bio explanation for gender

A

need to make sure they dont read too much into the data
immature girls may be due to the environment they grew up in rather than atypical chromosomes

63
Q

how can hormones affect your gender

A

they effect the way that the body develops and brain develops as well as how they function day to day

64
Q

what is the syndrome where people produce too much testosterone

A

CAH

65
Q

what does CAH cause

A

causes early sexual development in males but doesn’t have much effect otherwise
the behaviour of girls with this tends o be manualised e.g playing with ‘boy’ toys physically they tend too look more masculine and have ambiguous genitalia

66
Q

what can oestrogen lead to in some women

A

premenstural tension (PMT) this can leave a women feeling emotional, irritable and aggressive

67
Q

what does Easteal (1991) believe about PMT

A

that it could be the reason behind crime in some women

68
Q

what is the hormone oxytocin associated with

A

bonding and attachment and with social recognition

69
Q

what does rimmele et al (2009) believe about oxytocin

A

found that incraesed levels improved males ability to recognise if they had seen a face before but didn’t improve their recognition of non-social images (objects)

70
Q

who proposed cognitive development theory

A

piaget

71
Q

what does cognitive development theory suggest

A

that children’s thoughts and views on the world changes as they develop

72
Q

what did piaget propose

A

that children pass through several stages of development as they mature at each stage their thinking develops and they gain more complex cognitive abilities

73
Q

what theory did kohlberg develop

A

theory of gender constancy
saying gender develops in a series of stages through processes of maturation, socialising and less ending ego centrism

74
Q

what 3 stages did kohlberg identify

A

gender identity
gender stability
gender constancy

75
Q

what is gender identity stage

A

the child becomes aware that they are male or female
begins to categorise other people as male and female before this stage they arent really aware of gender
during this stage they judge gender on superficial characteristics thinking gender might change

76
Q

when does gender identity stage occur

A

between ages 2 and 3

77
Q

what is the gender stability stage

A

the child realises that their gender will remain fixed over time however they many think that gender can change in different situations

78
Q

when does the gender stability stage occur

A

between ages of 4 and 6

79
Q

what is the gender constancy stage

A

the child becomes aware that gender remains fixed in different situations
at this point the child internalises their gender because they realise its permanent
they begin to develop their gender role looking to role models of their gender

80
Q

when does gender constancy stage occur

A

around age 7

81
Q

what are the strengths of kohlbergs stages of gender development theory

A

slaby and frey found that when watching a video of a man and women, children in later stages were more likely to be aware of gender than than those in earlier stages supporting that gender roles become important once they develop gender constancy

they also used interviews to try and determine if children aged 2-5.5 had developed gender identity gender stability and constancy results consistent with kohlbergs theory

82
Q

what are the weaknesses of kohlbergs stages of gender development theory

A

criticised for ignoring the effects of social influences and conditioning
theory describes what happens not why
shalby and frey also found that boys were more likely to pay greater attention to people of their own gender than girls were which isnt explained by kohlbergs theory

83
Q

what did Martin and Halverson develop in 1981

A

gender schema theory

84
Q

what does gender schema theory suggest

A

how gender stereotyping helps learn what is and what isn’t appropriate for their gender

85
Q

what does gender schema theory propose

A

by the age of 3 children have developed a basic gender identity they also have a gender scheme containing the child’s ideas about gender appropriate behaviour

86
Q

what does gender schema theory say happens through observation

A

children continue to learn and gender appropriate behaviours and add them to their schema

87
Q

whats a childs gender schema based on

A

concept of in-group and an out-group

88
Q

what is the concept of an in-group and out-group

A

activities, objects and behaviours associated with their own sex are seen as an in group those with the opposite are the out-group
through reference to their in/out-group schema children show bias towards in group behaviours

89
Q

what does having a gender schema help children to manage

A

all the info that they exposed to they can focus on processing info related to their in-group and filter out info related to their out group

90
Q

what are the disadvantages for gender schema theory

A

reinforcing stereotypical gender roles can discourage children from showing interest in things related to their out group
as children got older they are capable of more complex cognition and understanding that their gender doesn’t limit them rigidly to out group and behaviours like the theory does

91
Q

what is the evidence for gender schema theory

A

bradbard et al 1986
found that children were more likely to play with unfamiliar toys if they were described as being for their own gender so children show bias towards in group activities in their schema

92
Q

whats the evidence against gender schema theory

A

campbell et al 2002
found that if a childrens awareness of their own gender and of gender stereotypes has no effect on how much they engaged in gender stereotypical behaviour
suggesting that having a gender schema isn’t the main factor in developing gender

93
Q

what did freud say about gender

A

develops through identification and internalisation

94
Q

who developed the psychodynamic explanation of gender

A

freud based on his ideas bout psychosexual development

95
Q

what are the 5 psychosexual stages

A

oral
anal
phallic
latent
genital

96
Q

when does freud say children develop gender

A

between 3 and 5 during phallic stage

97
Q

what does freuds psychodynamic explanation of gender say

A

that a child becomes aware of the difference between males and females in phallic stage
in particular realise difference between male and female genitalia and initially think females have been castrated
leading to unconscious desires and anxiety eventually resulting in them identifying parent of their own sex

98
Q

in the phallic stage what do boys experience

A

conflicting unconscious desires known as oedipus complex

99
Q

what happens when boys experience oedipus compec

A

they start to romantically desire their mother and begin to feel aggressive and jealous towards their fathers becauses hes getting in the way
they know their father is more powerful so then believe they would castrate them if he found out about his desires

100
Q

how do males deal with the oedipus compex

A

start to identify with their father and internalise him, as their superego this means that they develop a male gender identity
once they have developed their gender they deal with their desire for their mother by displacing it onto another women

101
Q

while boys go through the Oedipus complex what do girls have

A

electra complex

102
Q

what do girls experience in the electra complex

A

experience penis envy, they realise they have have no penis and wish that they had one, they start to desire their father because he has one
They feel hostile towards their mother because they are to blame for their castration, but also fear of losing their mother due to their feelings for their father

103
Q

What happens after they have feelings for their father (Electra complex)

A

they repress these feelings and start to identify with their mother and internalise her as their super ego
meaning they develop a female gender identity
through developing their gender they repress desires for a penis and substitute it for desires for a baby

104
Q

How did freud support his psychodynamic approach to gender

A

Little Hans

105
Q

What was Freuds case study on little Hans

A

Little Hans was afraid of horses
according to his father, Hans developed an interest in his own penis (widdler) when he was around 3 and asked if his mother had one
Hans also reportedly dreamt he was married to his mother
when Hans was 3 and 1/2 years old his mother told him off for touching himself and threatened to cut it off
Freud thought that he displayed fear of his father onto horses
Freud said that his fear came from castration anxiety

106
Q

What was freuds little Hans study based on

A

Around his correspondence with the boys father who reported to freuds conversations he’d has with Hans

107
Q

what type of horses did little Hans dad look like

A

Horses with white blinkers
Black mouths

108
Q

Why has freuds study been criticised

A

Its a subjective interpretation of behaviour can’t be scientifically tested had to support
Argued that he deliberately came up with interpretations
usually studied people with psychological problems so its unclear

109
Q

What did Kirkpatrick et al study in (1981)

A

looked at the gender development of 40 children ages 5-12 half of the children had heterosexual mothers and the other half had lesbian mothers

they found no identifiable differences between the gender developments of the 2 groups

110
Q

What does social learning theory say about gender development

A

suggests that we learn by observing and copying the behaviour of people around us
particularly imitate the behaviour of people we identify with

this learning can be passive or it can be active

111
Q

what can social learning theory explain

A

how gender typical behaviours are learnt

112
Q

what are the 2 aspects to learning gender typical behaviours (SLT)

A

one is that children identify with and imitate models of their own gender so males copy males ect and this behaviour becomes part of your gender role

the other aspect id learning through reinforcement for behaviour that is considered gender appropriate leading them to adopt the behaviour

113
Q

there’s evidence that parents and peers react differently to children developing gender typical behaviour

how do the parents react

A

Rubin et al (1974) found that fathers used words like ‘soft’ and ‘beautiful’ to describe their daughters and words like ‘strong’ and ‘firm’ to describe sons

Hron-Steward (1988) found that adults were quicker to confront a crying baby girl than a boy mothers also more likely to help daughter complete a task rather than their son

114
Q

what are there weaknesses for there SLT of gender development

A

doesn’t explain where stereotypical gender roles came from in the first place
smith and daglish (1977) found no correlation between how stereotypes parents views of gender appropriate behaviour were and how much their 1-2 yr old children showed gender typical behaviour

115
Q

what may influence gender roles

A

the media (tv, film act)
responsibility for childcare

116
Q

who studied influence of media on gender roles

A

williams (1986)

117
Q

what was williams (1986) study

A

carried out a 2 year natural experiment in Canada

she looked at the effects of tv being introduced to a town (Notel) comparing it to near by town that already had tv (Multitle) she found gender stereotyping was higher at the start in M but then GS in N increased after the intro to tv

118
Q

how has cross cultural research been used

A

to identify how gender roles differ between cultures

and help understand causes of gender roles
(similar=bio diff=social causes)

119
Q

what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) do in their study

A

observed the behaviour of children in the USA, Mexico, Japan, India Philippines and kenya

120
Q

what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) find in their study

A

found that gender behaviour was very similar to western stereotypes and they found that there were clear differences between male and female behaviour

in societies where children were expected to work towards the families girls made to look after siblings and do domestic work where as boys made to look after animals and very rarely did domestic work

121
Q

what did Whiting and Edwards (1988) study suggest

A

similar gender roles across cultures suggesting there’s a bio explanation supporting nature side of the nature-nurture debate

122
Q

who suggested a social eplanation to gender (cross-cultural research)

A

Margaret mead (1935)
looked at 3 tribes in Papua New Guinea and showed each tribe had different role for men and women
and also appeared differently to western world also different to each other

123
Q

whats had about cross-cultural research

A

hard to do without involving some ethnocentric bias

124
Q

what did Katz and Conner (1981) look at

A

80 different cultures they found that in 90% of them women had the main responsibility for child rearing

125
Q

80 different cultures they found that in 90% of them women had the main responsibility for child rearing

whats the implications of this

A

occupation, finance and mobility

126
Q

what did D’Andrade (1966) find in his study in 224 societies

A

men more likely to travel further from home, and be involves in weapon making and hunting
women more likely to repair clothes prepare food and make objects from home

127
Q

What is a negative towards sex role stereotypes

A

Theory lacks temporal validity

128
Q

what does cognitive explanations suggest

A

children’s understanding of gender actively develops directly seeking out learning experiences and intellectually organising concepts not passively responding to stimuli

129
Q

in terms of gender schema theory, what are in groups

A

are the gender that the children belongs too and child focuses more on and develop a stronger understanding of stereotyped behaviour for their gender before a deeper understanding of the our group

130
Q

general evaluations of cog approach of gender development

A
  • bio theories suggest that gendered behaviour is due to innate processes resulting in instinctual behaviour that isn’t depended on schemas
  • young children find it hard to communicate gender so much reply on inferences
  • SLT states that boys have stronger sex typed stereotypes than girls due to greater social pressure

+ focus on cognitive is a sensible theoretical approach

Psychology (11 decks)

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