Forensics Flashcards
why do police use profiling?
To help them identify suspects
Explain the American ‘top-down approach’
Classified into 2 groups, organised and disorganised. These groups are used to compare information from new crime scenes to make judgments based on past experience
called criminal investigative analysis
What are the negatives of the ‘top down’ approach?
Based on self-report interviews and restricted sample, the categories devised by the FBI lack validity and can’t be generalised to the wider population
Explain the British ‘bottom up’ approach
Canter’s geographical profiling saw the crime scene as a source of information, which could reveal information about their everyday and characteristics
refers to investigative psychology
Why is it the ‘bottom down’ approach?
It focuses on the unique circumstances of an individual offender
Who came up with the bottom up approach?
David Canter
What are the 4 things Douglas et al reported the FBI use when building a profile?
Assimilating data, classifying the crime, reconstructing the crime and creating a profile
What are the 5 things Canter reported to be taken into account for geographical profiling?
Personal characteristics, criminal history, residential location, domestic and social characteristics and occupational/educational history
behaviour analysed statistically
Name 3 issues with profiling?
Can only are used for a limited range off crimes, offender profiling had been misrepresented (focuses on aims rather than the person)and the cops found that only 14% of senior police felt it helped solve a case
What was the case of Rachel Nickell?
Women murdered infant of her 2yr old son in 1992, Paul Briton developed a profile which was broadcast on TV 4 callers identified the same person (Colin stage) an undercover female police officer tired to get him to confess but Robert napper was the real murderer
Who is John Duffy known as?
Railway rapist
What did John Duffy do?
Between 1982 and 1986 he was responsible for 24 sexual assaults and 3 murders.
For the case of John Duffy, what did Canter put in the profile?
Live close to crime, mid-late 20’s, have a skilled occupation, knowledge about railway, criminal record and unattractive ect…
What did Lombros do?
Link physical characteristics to crime
What is positive criminology?
Says that criminal behaviour results from physical or psychological features (no free will involve)
studied over 4000 living and dead criminals to back up atavistic form
What did lombroso study?
Physical characteristics of criminals, he wanted to discover if certain features were more common in criminals than non-criminals
Through his studies what did Lombroso find?
The criminals are more likely to have atavistic features, such as a string jaw and a flat nose. He thought that behaviour came primitive instincts
What are the strengths of Lombroso’s theory?
Highlighted the role of biology in criminology and considered the behaviour was likely to come from an interaction between biological and social factors an idea which has been influentional
What are the weaknesses of Lombroso’s theory?
Didn’t use a non-criminal control group, a lot of his sample may had psychological disorders/chromosomal abnormalities affecting behaviour
Goring (1913) compared biological measurements of 3000 criminals with 3000 non criminals, finding that physics and mental constitution of both criminal and law abiding persons of the same age stature and class are identical there’s no such things a criminal type
What are the 3 pieces of evidence that supports the genetic cause of offending?
Adoption studies, genetic influences on aggression and an extra Y chromosome
What did Raine investigate?
The link between brain dysfunction and criminality, believed that there was an identifiable biological disproportion for criminal behaviour
What are the strengths of the biological explaination for offending behaviour?
Many studies suggest there’s some contribution from biological factors and these theories can be scientifically tested making them more relaible
has implications for the justice system may consider treatment rather than punishment
What are the weaknesses of the biological explanation for offending behaviour?
No study had a 100% concordance rate, so biology can’t be the only factor influencing behaviour reductionist and deterministic
socially sensitive concept
What was Hans Eysenck best known for?
He was one of the first psychologists to examine human personality
What are the 3 personalities that Hans Eysenck suggested?
Neuroticism-stability, Extraversion-introversion and Psychoticism
What is Neuroticism-stability?
Individuals towards the neurotic end of this dimension show traits such as anxiousness and restlessness, traits at the other end of the scale included reliability and calmness
N- easy to upset and NS easily triggered by threats
S- opposite
What is Extraversion-introversion?
Individuals towards the extravert end of this dimension tend to be sociable, impulsive and assertive those at the other end tend to be quite, passive and reserved
E- due to chronically under-aroused NS
I- have an over-aroused NS so don’t seek attention
What is psychoticism?
This scale shows how disposed an individual is to psychotic breakdown, those who score highly tend to be aggressive, hostile and uncaring
emotionally cold don’t feel compassion
What did Eysenck suggest influences a type of behaviour?
Genetic predisposition and environmental factors
What did Eysenck say were the ‘criminal’ behaviour characteristics?
Psychoticism, neuroticism and extraversion
How has Eysenck’s theory been influential?
As it combines biological, psychological and social approaches together
What’s an issue with Eysenk’s theory?
A lot of his studies involved self-report measures, meaning his findings lack reliability
Over simplistic suggests dual taxonomy
What are cognitive distortions?
Irrational thought patterns which give people a distorted view of reality, affecting how they behave
might make criminals feel their acts are justified
What studied cognitive distortions?
Gibbs et al (1955)
What are the several (4) cognitive distortions linked to offending behaviour developed by Gibbs et all (1955)
Being self-centred
minimisation- interpreting our own behaviour as less serious that it actually is
blaming others
hostile attribution bias
What is hostile attribution bias?
Believing that others are ‘out to get them’ and have hostile intentions
when our inferences about other people’s interval mental states are biased to assume they have neg intentions
Who studied levels of moral reasoning?
Kohlberg
What are the 3 levels of moral reasoning Kohlberg developed?
Pre-conventional reasoning, conventional reasoning and post-conventional reasoning
he said most criminals don’t reach the higher levels of moral reasoning mostly stuck at pre
What are the 2 progressive stages under pre-conventional reasoning?
An action is morally wrong is the person who commits it is punished as a result and the right behaviour is the one that is in your best interest
stage1: punishment orientation correct behaviour is whatever will help them avoid the crime
stage2: reward orientation correct behaviour is whatever is most rewarding
What are the 2 progressive stages under conventional reasoning?
The right behaviour is the one that makes others think positively about you and its important to obey laws and follow social conventions as they help society function properly
What are the 2 progressive stages under post-conventional reasoning?
Right course of action is the one that promotes the greatest good for the greatest number of people and actions are driven by abstract, universal principles of right/wrong, which don’t depend on the situation
What’s the issue with Kohlberg theory?
Considered to be gender biased as most of his studies were carried out on US men.
Gilligan (1982) claimed that the theory was androcentric and focused too much on male-orientated ideas about justice
Who developed the psychodynamic approach?
Freud
What are the 2 theory’s relating to the psychodynamic approach Freud developed?
An inadequate superego and defence mechanisms
How could criminality be due to an inadequate superego?
Due to abnormal development of the id, ego and superego which occurred in early childhood. Freud suggested that the is provides an instinctive drive towards criminal behaviour but the superego keeps its inline
What did Blackburn (1993) propose about the superego?
3 different types:
1) A weak superego
2) Deviant super ego
3) A strong/over-hash superego
What causes a weak superego?
Often found fun those with no same sex parent can’t internaliser that parents moral code
What causes a deviant superego?
Found in those with same sex parents, if they have a criminal mother her superego may be less responsive to crime than someone else without a criminal mother
What causes a strong superego?
If they think about acting on there id’s desires they’ll end up feeling guilty if they have a strong superego then they are able to feel they should be punished to relieve the guilt to engage in crimes to get caught
How could criminality be due to defence mechanisms?
Moat people can repress and deny urges and keep them at bay, but the psychodynamic approach suggests that a triggering incident or stimulus might release these feelings, resulting in anti-social behaviour and offences.
What did Englander (2007) describe about defence mechanisms?
Englander (2007) described how displacement aggression in offenders might explain their anti-social behaviour if offenders can’t control their aggression then they may ‘spill out’ of their unconscious, leading to violence
What are 2 weaknesses about the psychodynamic approach to crime?
Its difficult to scientifically test the theories as they consider unconscious processes making it unreliable and lacks validity, lots of data in the PDA is from case studies and is qualitative and also is hard to use it to state laws that can be generalised
What did Sutherland (1939) develop?
Differential association theory
What did Sutherland (1939) believe?
That criminal behaviour could be learnt in interactions with other deviant individuals not only leading techniques and methods but also pick up motives and attitudes behaving the crimes
socialisation: processed that we learn out norms and values and are socialised from the people around us
behaviours are reinforced by the expectations of people we associate with learning actual offending techniques passed down from generations
What are 2 strengths of differential association theory?
Different association theory accounts for all types of people, not only juveniles and lower classes and his theory was supported by Short (1955) who measures delinquent behaviour and association of criminals and found a positive correlation between the 2 (on 176 school children)
What are 2 weaknesses of differential association theory?
Not everyone is influences by people around then, so the theory doesn’t consider individual differences and there’s problems in defining a crime making this theory hard to test as its hard to objectively measure attitude towards law and crime
What are the 5 aims of custodial sentencing?
Redistribution (punishment)- should pay for actions
Rehabilitation- chance to get life back
Incapacitation- protecting public
Denunciation- showing public offenders action were wrong
Deterrence- stopping them reoffending
What are the 4 main psychological effects of custodial sentencing?
Mental health problems
Institutionalisation
Reinforces criminal behaviour
Labelling
Explain mental health problems as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing?
Its though that prisoners may be more susceptible to problems with depression and more likely to attempt suicide than others
Who studied suicide in prisons in England and Wales?
Dooley (1990)
What did Dooley find in his study on suicide in prisons in England and Wales?
Prisoners serving life sentences/ those who convicted of violent or sexual offences were most at risk
There was a psychiatric problem in 1/3 of cases and self-ham was common
Depressive illness is likely to be a contributing factor to suicide in prison
Explain institutionalisation as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing?
Being kept in a prison often strips offenders of their autonomy
Studies such a Zimbardo’s have shown that prisoners are quick to conform to given roles and become depended on others within their environment
Explain labelling as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing?
When offenders often are released from prison they will still hold the stigma of having been ‘inside’
They may find it difficult to get a job or maintain their social network, which in turn increases the likelihood of recidivism
Explain reinforces criminal behaviour as a psychological effect of custodial sentencing?
Putting people who have committed crimes all together in one place might seem like a good idea
But it can become a breeding ground for crime, prisons can reinforce the criminal lifestyle and support criminal behaviour
What’s a benefit of imprisonment?
It can fulfil its aims whilst having positive psychological effects, such as having a new outlook on life
Giving prisoners the opportunity to reform and become better people
What’s the drawbacks of imprisonment?
Some believe it only exists to please the public, as a sign of ‘justice’ being served
Some argue that if it did really work as a deterrent there wouldn’t be any criminals today
Putting money into prevention might be more useful
What is meant by recidivism?
Means repeating an undesirable behaviour after you’ve been punished for it
What are the 7 factors that can influence recidivism?
1) Length of time spent in prison
2)Supervision after conditional release
3) Disciplinary reports
4) Educational level
5) Seriousness of crime committed
6) Prisoner ethnicity
7) Individual experiences in prison
In UK what are the rates of recidivism like?
Slowly decreased overtime, in 2012 27% of criminals re-offended
But in the same year there was a reported rise in the number of re-offenders that served less than 12 months happening in over 50% of cases
What is a token economy used as?
A behaviourist treatment, form of behaviour modification
What is a token economy based on?
Operant conditioning
What does operant conditioning deal with?
Modification of behaviour through consequences, rewards which reinforce behaviour and punishments which discourage the behaviour from happening again
What does a token economy do?
Reinforces good behaviour by rewarding subjects with ‘tokens’ for meeting their behavioural ‘goals’
Token are saved up and spent on ‘treats’ or ‘rewards’
Explain the 5 steps to how a token economy works?
1) The behaviour that is desired from the inmates must be clearly defined
2) A variety of rewards must be given to encourage participation
3) The reasons for token allocation must be clear
4) What a token is worth must be clearly established
5) The rate of earning tokens must also be clearly established
What is the evidence that a token economy can improve inmates behaviour?
Milan and McKee (1976) studied the effect of using a token economy in a cellblock of an American male prison
They compared the inmates behaviour between several conditions including normal prison methods a system of behaviour monitoring and encouragement without issuing tokens, and a full token economy
They found that the inmates performance for the monitored behaviours was best when the full token economy was in place
What is the evidence against using token economies to improve inmates behaviour?
Kirigin et al (1982) studied the effectiveness of a programme for ‘delinquent’ youths
Which included a token economy
They found that rates of criminaliy and of behaviour like truancy were reduced during the programme but returned to the same rates as the control group after the programme
Name a therapeutic programme
Anger management
What does anger management assume that violent behaviour is caused by?
Anger and fustration
What is anger management based on?
Cognitive behavioural techniques and a specific programme has been designed for use in penal institutions
What the main aims of anger management to reduce the amount of violence within the prison?
Self-awareness and control, hoping that it will still make a difference after release
What does anger management usually involve?
2 hour long session, each week for 8 weeks
Participants are encouraged to monitor their own behaviour patterns and emotions so that they become increasingly aware of their own emotional changes
It is thought that this will help them to control their own emotions
What is a negative of anger managment?
Not effective for everyone
Who studied effectiveness of anger management?
Ireland (2000)
What is restorative justice?
About criminals making amends
What is traditional justice about?
Being punished for committing crimes
What does the restorative justice programme focuses on?
Making amends directly to the people they’ve harmed with their behaviour
Helping the criminal to take responsibility for their actions and makes them aware of the real damage they’ve caused
What are the 4 steps to restorative justice programme?
1) It can be used for various offences from anti-social behaviour to serious offences like assault
2) The victim must volunteer to use the approach and the offender must have admitted responsibility
3) The process may involve the victim and offender meeting face-to-face or communicating by letter
4) It can also involve offenders working to undo the damage they have caused e.g removing graffiti
What are the 3 advantages of restorative justice programme?
1) It reduced post-traumatic stress in victims and they were less likely to want violent revenge
2) Both criminals and victims were more satisfied with this approach than traditional justice solutions
3) It decrease that cost involved
What is the main problem with restorative justice programme?
People are reluctant to use it, lack of awareness by public and their confusion over what restorative justice really means
crime isnt seen as random, because of this what do criminals have
modus operandi, a distinctive way they commit crimes which can be combined with other info about the victim, time and place of the crime
Explain why they are called top down and bottom up
top down meaning starting from pre-existing concepts already in the mind so offender type
bottom up is starting from sensory data so in this case criminal data collection
what was the typology developed for the top down approach
stage 1: data assimilation, information is gathered from the crime scene and other info such as choice of victim and location
stage 2: crime scene classification, analysis of info suggests the criminal type
stage 3: crime reconstruction, the sequence both the offender and victims behaviour before and after offence is hypothesised
stage 4: profile generation, a range of inferences are made such as demographic assumptions physical feature and expected behaviours
what did the FBI do to work out the typology of top down approach
36 convicted murders were interviewed (1979-1983) with 118 known victims between them
as a result of their responses 24 were classified as organised offenders and 12 disorganised
how are organised and disorganised criminals behaviours different
organised: planned, criminal in total control, body restrained and hidden, average or high IQ and following crime in media
disorganised: spontaneous, random and sloppy, body in plain view, lower IQ and unlikely to be following crime in media
evaluations of the top down approach
+ Ressler (1986) developed the definitions of organised and disorgansied offender through extensive interviews
-only 36 ppl in resslers study not representative
- a lot of self-report, offenders likely to lie to seem better
what was david canters 5 factor model for interpreting a crime scene
interpersonal coherence: suggests a persons interactional style with the victim is the same as with others in their lives
time and place significance: location chosen by offender so significant to them (knows area well)
criminal characteristics: based on previous crimes
criminal career: how following crimes by the offender change due to them becoming more experienced
forensic awareness: are they aware of forensic techniques
in terms of geographical profiling what is meant by least effort principle
if there are multiple equal potential locations to commit a crime, the offender will pick the one closest to their home base
in terms of geographical profiling what is meant by distance decay
number of crimes will decreased the further from the offenders base
however, theres a buffer zone immediately around their home to decrease the chance of being recognised
in terms of geographical profiling what is meant by the circle hypothesis
suggests that if you draw a circle with the furthest offences on the circumference then their home would be within the circle
what did canter name those who commute to crime and those who don’t
Marauders: those who don’t, house is within the circle
commuters who travel to crime away from house
whats the more complex version of the circle theory
explain it
criminal-geographic targeting
includes geographical data and features of the environment to create a 3d heat-map where the offender base might be located
called a jeopardy surface
what are the research evaluations of the bottom up approach
+canter and larkin (1993) showed 87% of a sample of 45 british serial sexual assaulters were marauders
supporting circle hypothesis
-hard to work out which offences were by which offender
what are the general evaluations of offender profiling
- effectiveness is difficult to assess never used in isolation
- all methods suffer from problem of statistically abnormal offenders which wouldn’t match what would be expected by intuition
what did lombroso say was physical characteristics of thieves and murderers
thieves: upturned nose
Murderers: hooked beak nose
how is atavistic form an example of scientific racism
claiming bio features such as “dark skin” identify criminality
has influenced racist police’s of eugenics and biased IQ testing that harmed black communities
longer the trust in psychology as a science and objectivity of criminal research
what’s the genetic explanation of offending behaviour
that there are inherited genes that make it more likely that an individual will engage with criminal behaviour
specific candidate genes such as MAOA gene have been linked to high levels of criminal behaviour including aggression (MAOA metabolised a range of neuro transmitters including serotonin)
what’s the genetic explanation of offending behaviour
that there are inherited genes that make it more likely that an individual will engage with criminal behaviour
specific candidate genes such as MAOA gene have been linked to high levels of criminal behaviour including aggression (MAOA metabolised a range of neuro transmitters including serotonin)
Not everyone with the MAOA candidate gene is a criminal what is the reason behind this
it’s suggested that some genes are only expressed due to an interaction with the environment one explanation is the dustheaps stress model (pre-existing vulnerability exists for inheriting genes and the aggression behvajkhr is triggered by later environmental life stresses)
what’s neural explanation for offending
the range of biological processes are structures within the brain that leads to criminal behaviour includes biochemistry and large neural structures
what’s an example of neural explanation for offending
neurotransmitters: biological molecules that regulate brain activity an imbalance is linked to offending behaviour particularly violence
Noradrenaline: High level results in aggression likely due to its role is fight or flight
Serotonin: liked to ability to control impulsivity
Dopamine: causes pleasure and linked to drug addiction the need to squire more of the drug to satisfy bio craving
what 2 neural structures are linked to regulating behaviour
reduced limbic system activity: emotions like guilt empathy and compassion are important in inhibiting violet actions psychopaths have a problem with their limbic system
frontal cortex: responsible for executive function often overriding strong aggressive emotional responses from other areas of the brain thought to be underdeveloped in violent criminals
what did Eysenk believe about our personality
has biological basis as a criminal personality is due to that type of NS we inherit
How easily the NS responses to stimulus influences leading to offending behaviour
what did Eysenk believe about our personality
has biological basis as a criminal personality is due to that type of NS we inherit
How easily the NS responses to stimulus influences leading to offending behaviour
positives if kohlbergs theory
understanding the link between offending and cog processing means CBT could be used to change offenders irrational thinking
