Gender

Question 1

What is sex? A01

Answer 1

the biological differences between males and females including chromosomes, hormones and anatomy

Question 2

What is gender? A01

Answer 2

psychological and cultural differences between males and females including attitudes, behaviours and social roles

Question 3

What is gender identiy disorder (gender dysphoria)? A01/A03

Answer 3

when a persons biological prescribed sex doesn’t reflect the way they feel inside and the gender they feel they are
-Batista family= 4 girls born with vaginas, grew penises and testicles, had male genitals at birth but was not external, XY concealed

Question 4

What is intersex? A01

Answer 4

when a foetus is exposed to an imbalance of hormones so their genitals appear neither male or female at birth

Question 5

What are sex-role stereotypes? A01/A03

Answer 5

set of shared expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable behaviour for male and females
parents, peers and the media are agents of socialisation and support the expectations we have of men and women
-Smith and Lloyd= found adults provided children with stereotypical boys and girls toys based on the child’s appearance

Question 6

What is androgyny? A01

Answer 6

displaying a balance of masculine and feminine characteristics in one’s personality

Question 7

What is the Bem Sex Role Inventory? A01

Answer 7

BSRI- 1974
-the first systematic attempt to measure androgyny using a rating scale of 60 traits (20 masc, 20 fem, 20 neut) to produce scores across 2 groups: masculinity- femininity and androgynous- undifferentiated
-people rated themselves on a scale of true to not true, added up and given a score for masc, fem or andro

Question 8

BSRI evaluation- A03

Answer 8

+reliability= high test-retest reliability as they are consistent over time, follow up study using a smaller sample of the same students (original: 50m and 50f judges rated 200 traits of whether they were masc fem or neut, the highest 20 traits were chosen to use) found similar scores
+prac apps= parents can be encouraged to raise children free to assume characteristics of either gender, huge social implications and reduce burden on NHS
-cultural and temporal validity= based on westernised societies, traits are no longer relevant
-ethnocentric= only devised using judges from USA, men should be strong and females should be gentle, not valid in other cultures

Question 9

What are the roles of chromosomes in sex and gender? A01

Answer 9

-found in nucleus of cells and carry information in the form of genes, 23rd pair determines biological sex
-all normal egg cells have X chrom, half of sperm cells carry X and other half carries Y
-babies sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises the egg
-Y chrom carries gene called sex determining region Y (SRY) which causes testes to develop which produce androgens, without these the baby would be female

Question 10

What are the roles of hormones in sex and gender? A01

Answer 10

-hormones= a chemical substance circulated in the blood that controls and regulates the activity of certain cells or organs
-chromosomes determine a person’s sex but hormones can influence gender development
-TESTOSTERONE= from the androgen group, controls development of male sex organs, liked to aggression
-OESTROGEN= primary female hormone, role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system, determines female sex characteristics and menstruation
-OXYTOCIN= causes the uterus to contract during labour and stimulates contraction, allows breastfeeding, can dampen fight or flight and trigger tend and befriend

Question 11

Role of chromosomes and hormones evaluation- A03

Answer 11

+supportive res= David Reimer and Dr Money (CASE STUDY)
+supportive res= Dabbs= prison offenders with highest levels of testosterone were more likely to have committed violent or sexually motivated crimes, high testo is linked to aggression
-conflicting res= Maccoby and Jacklin= sig more differences in behaviour within sexes, SLT may be more appropriate as it considers cultural differences
-pop validity= small samples of unusual people or animals, cant generalise- e.g. case studies

Question 12

What is an atypical sex chromosome pattern? A01

Answer 12

any sex chromosome pattern that deviates from the usual XX or XY formation and which tends to be associated with a distinct pattern of physical and psychological symptoms

Question 13

What is Klinefelter’s syndrome? A01

Answer 13

-when males have XXY chroms, 47 rather than 46
-affects 1 in 550 males, 2/3 are unaware until diagnosis
-physical= reduced body hair, breast development, long limbs
-psychological= poor memory, reading and lang skills are poor
-treatment is testosterone replacement (drugs, gel or injection)

Question 14

What is Turner’s syndrome? A01

Answer 14

-when women have XO chroms, 45 rather than 46
-affects 1 in 2000
-physical= dont develop breasts, appearance of girls than women, no periods
-psychological= higher reading ability, low spacial mathematical skills, immature
-treatment= hormone therapy (tablets, injections, gels)

Question 15

Atypical sex chromosome pattern evaluation- A03

Answer 15

+nature nurture debate= different physical and psychological characteristics (nature), biological basis, good for parents to know and receive support
+prac apps= HRT can be used, testo for Klin Syn (increases muscle density and stimulates facial and body hair), growth injections for Turns Syn (oestrogen for breast development and progesterone for periods)
-cause and effect= girls with Turns Syn are socially immature, look like children so treated like children, also have effects on performance at school, could be due to environmental factors
-pop validity= studies are difficult to generalise, small and unusual sample, unrepresentative

Question 16

Cognitive explanations- What is Kohlberg’s theory? A01

Answer 16

child doesn’t know what gender they are and it develops from their interaction and contruction with the world
1. gender identity (2-3yrs)= recognises if they are a boy/girl and can label others, make judgement on external features, dont understand gender is permanent
2. gender stability (4-6yrs)= awareness that gender is fixed, can be confused by external changes in appearance
3. gender constancy (7-12yrs)= realises changes in appearances or activities dont change gender, constant at all times, start to learn gender appropriate behaviour

Question 17

Kohlberg’s theory evaluation- A03

Answer 17

+Slaby and Frey= all children who had reached gender stability had also reached gender identity and children who had reached constancy had also reached both, however may be different now due to media at younger age
+Munroe= universal, found the same sequence across other cultures (Kenya), gender develops through maturation as cognitive capacity
-Martin and Little= measured gender concepts, sex-type preferences and stereotypes in 3-5yrs, basic understanding but strong stereotypes, against as its before constancy
-methodology= developed using interviews with young children, lack vocab to express understanding, lack validity

Question 18

Cognitive explanations- What is gender schema theory? A01

Answer 18

MARTIN AND HALVERSON
-suggests children are motivated to learn about gender at earlier age, also cognitive developmental theory
-around 3yrs (have achieved gender identity) learn gender related schemas from adults, peers and media that are related to cultural norms
-in-group and out-group schema, girls identify with girls who share same interests, same for boys, but out-group down in order to raise self-esteem
-child forms own-schema, based on behaviours and traits that are appropriate for them, develop with experience
-gender beliefs are resilient, children ignore info not consistent with in-group info

Question 19

What is gender schema theory evaluation- A03

Answer 19

+Martin and Halverson= strong empirical evidence, children more likely to remember consistent photos and changed sex of person of the gender- inconsistent activity
+Martin and Little= children under age of 4 showed no signs of gender stability or constancy but still demonstrated strongly sex-typed behaviours, contradicts Kolhberg’s theory
-ignores social factors= too much emphasis on cog factors, ignores rewards and punishments for gendered behaviour, schemas don’t change behaviour
-gender bias= beta-biased as it assumes both genders develop gender identity in the same way and time, BAUER= boy use gender schemas by 25mns, mans role is more defined and womens role is more diverse, girls see mother doing more roles, boys see father doing one role, more straightforward role model

Question 20

Psychodynamic explanation- Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory- A01

Answer 20

-child passes through 5 stages, gender development occurs during third, children are bi-sexual
-Oedipus complex= boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and are jealous of their father, boy knows father is more powerful so has castration anxiety, gives up love for mother
-Electra complex= double resentment to mother as she is a love rival for father, feel mother castrated them in womb- penis envy- substitute penis envy for desire to have children
-both sexes identify with same-sex parents, they then internalise their attitudes and take of their ‘second-hand’ gender identity

Question 21

Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory- A03

Answer 21

+Little Hans= fear of being bitten by horse represented castration anxiety as father wore glasses like the horses blinkers, displaced fear onto horse, disappeared once he identified with father
+prac apps= parents can be informed and encouraged to demonstrated less gender stereotypical behaviours, children have less rigid views
-lack of scientific rigour= untestable, rely on subjective interpretation, theory is pseudoscientific as key ideas can’t be falsified, not valid
-gender bias= HORNEY= womb envy in men is more powerful than penis envy in women, female gender development is founded on a desire to be like a man, androcentric assumption and based on the time when Frued lived, lacks temporal validity

Question 22

Social learning theory of gender development- A01

Answer 22

-suggests all behaviour is learnt observing and intimidating other people
-nurture side of the argument, acknowledges influences of our environment
-gender is demonstrated by four meditational processes, attention, retention, motivation, motor reproduction
-behaviour is modelled and imitated, more likely to imitate behaviour from same-sex parent (we identify with them/ want to be like them)
-child more likely to copy a role model who have seen being rewarded for their behaviour= vicarious reinforcement
-direct r= when someone is more likely to be praised for demonstrating this gender-appropriate behaviour
-differential r= way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour

Question 23

Social learning theory of gender development- A03

Answer 23

+Smith and Lloyd= when babies dressed in blue or pink, adults treated them differently, encouraged to play with different toys, reinforced early via differential r
+explains cultural differences= western cultures more likely to accept tom-boys than eastern cultures as there are tom-boy role models, motivated to copy them
-ignores cognitive= suggests modelling gender behaviour can occur at any age, DUBLIN= selection and imitation doesn’t come until later, cognition and maturation may need to be considered
-ignores biology= little emphasis on genes and chromosomes, DAVID REIMER case

Question 24

Culture roles in gender- A01

Answer 24

MEAD- differences
carried out studies on tribal groups in New Guinea
-The Arapesh= gentle and responsive
-The Mundugumor= aggressive and hostile
-The Tchambuli= women were dominant and organised
suggests gender roles may be culturally determined rather than biological

BUSS- similarities
found mate preferences in 37 countries- women prefer a mate with wealth and resources and men prefer youth and physical attractiveness, could be due to evolutionary factors
MUNROE AND MUNROE- similarities
found in most societies division of labour is organised along gender lines

Question 25

Culture roles in gender evaluation- A03

Answer 25

+prac apps= gives promise to being able to change gender roles, important in places where gender is not equal, gender quality movements more supported
+change over time= ALLEYE= consider historical changes in cultural difference in gender roles, gender gap is decreasing, seen with the equality act
-methodology= Mead criticised for observer bias and making generalisations, preconceptions of other cultures influenced her findings, not valid
-cultural bias= BERRY= etic, assumes western ways are universal but are actually meaningless in other cultures, not valid interpretation

Question 26

Media role in gender- A01

Answer 26

-media provide role models with whom children may identify and want to imitate
-include meditational processes
-rigid stereotypes= BUSSY AND BANDURA= suggest media provide clear gender stereotypes- men shown as independent and ambitious, women opposite
-media reinforces widespread social stereotypes about gender behaviour, promotes self-efficacy (info on what male sand females are capable of carrying out)
-2019- advertising standards authority= prevents adverts from making use of gender stereotypes

Question 27

Media role in gender evaluation- A03

Answer 27

+prac apps= potential to change gender stereotypes in society, changing tv characters to be more neutral, this uses the social learning theory
+Williams= people in Notel had not previously been exposed to to tv role models as they had no tv, before tv girls had weaker sex-typed views suggesting media increases sex-typed views
-can’t establish cause and effect= whether media influences the formation and maintenance of gender stereotypes or if media just reflects them, impossible to have a control group due to gloabl exposure
-CHARLTON study= introduction of tv in Atlantic did not increase violence, media may not affect gender development, not sufficient to change their behaviour

Question 28

Atypical gender development- what does it include?

Answer 28

What it is
Bio explanations
Social-psych explanations= psychodynamic and cognitive

Question 29

Atypical gender development- gender dysphoria- A01

Answer 29

-strong persistent feelings of identification with the opposite gender and discomfort with their assigned sex
-recognised as a psychological disorder, must last for 6 months and must be verbalised
-treatment= gender identity clinic, aims to help reduce or remove the distressing feelings of a mismatch between biological sex and gender identity
-1% suffer out of 10,000

Question 30

Atypical gender development- biological explanations for gender dysphoria- A01(and studies)

Answer 30

-Brain Sex Theory suggests gd is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex
-Zhou= studied ‘bed nucleus of the stria terminalis’ (BSTc) which 40% larger in males, post- mortem studies of 6 male-female transgender individuals showed that the BSTc was of similar size to a female brain rather then a male brain

-genetic factors= twin and dna studies support a genetic explanation
-Hare= looked at dna of 112 MtF trans people, found they are more likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene, this abnormality is reduced action of testosterone, could affect gender development in the womb

Question 31

Biological explanations for gender dysphoria- A03

Answer 31

+research in A01
+reducing stigma= research in gd has social consequences, biological causes help people become more accepting as its not their fault, reducing discrimination in society
-difficulties drawing conclusions= twin studies are inconclusive

Question 32

Social-psychological explanations for gender dysphoria- A01

Answer 32

Psychoanalytic theory
-GD in males is caused by the child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established
-child fantasises of symbiotic fusion with mother to relieve anxiety
-adopts mother’s gender identity
Cognitive explanation
-dual pathway
-first= acknowledges development of gender app attitudes and behaviour
-second= how personal interests may become more dominant- non sex-typed schema leads to androgynous behaviour

Question 33

Social-psychological explanations for gender dysphoria- A03

Answer 33

+Stoller= interviewed GD males, they displayed close mother-son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confuse gender identity long term
+prac apps= suggests it’s not predetermined at birth, parents receive education on how to reduce effects of separation anxiety, reduce amount of children with GD and the stress it causes
-gender bias= doesn’t explain GD in females, only to male trans, androcentric
-lack of scientific rigour= problems with methodology, difficult to test separation anxiety, happens at unconscious level, not observable and measurable construct, questions validity, subjective findings