gender

Question 1

what is sex

Answer 1

refers to a person’s biological status as male or female. This is biologically determined by different chromosomes, leading to different hormonal influences, resulting in differences in physical anatomy such as reproductive organs, body shape, hair growth, etc.

Question 1

what is gender

Answer 1

refers to a person’s psychosocial status as either masculine or feminine. This includes all the attitudes, roles and behaviours we associated with ‘being male’ or ‘being female’. These are heavily influenced by social norms, cultural expectations and sex role stereotypes.

Question 2

what are sex role stereotypes

Answer 2

a set of shared expectations that people within a society or culture hold about what is acceptable or normal behaviour for males and females. These expectations can be reinforced by parents, peers and the media.

Question 3

what is androgyny

and when was it introduced

Answer 3

Androgyny refers to a personality type that is characterised by a mixture of masculine and feminine traits, attitudes or behaviours.

Bem first introduced the concept of psychological androgyny, arguing that a person can show both masculine and feminine traits. Bem also argued that** being androgynous is psychologically healthy**, because it avoids fixed sex-role stereotypes. She said that people who are androgynous are able to adapt to a range of contexts and situations that non-androgynous people would find difficult. She **developed the Bem’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) to measure androgyny. **

Question 4

how was the BSRI developed

Answer 4

Bem developed the BSRI by asking 50 males and 50 females to rate 200 traits in terms of how desirable they were for men and women. The highest scoring traits for each category became the 20 masculine and 20 feminine traits on the scale. Bem also included 10 positive and 10 gender-neutral items to make sure participants are not overly influenced by seeing just masculine/feminine items.

Question 5

scoring of the BSRI

Answer 5

• High masculine & low feminine = Masculine
• High feminine & low masculine = Feminine
• High masculine & high feminine = Androgynous
• Low feminine & low masculine = Undifferentiated

Question 6

results of the BSRI

Answer 6

Bem (1974) found that 34% of males and 27% of females are psychologically androgynous, which suggests a large minority of people are androgynous rather than masculine or feminine.

Question 7

strength of the BSRI

validity

Answer 7

after devoloping the BSRI, Bem piloted it with over 1000 students at stanford uni and found that the results corresponded with the participants’ own perceptions of their gender identity

Question 8

strength of the BSRI

reliable

Answer 8

4 weeks later Bem did a follow up study involving 60 of the same students who completed the BSRI again. the correlated coefficient for the scores on the first and second administrations was +0.90

Question 9

strength of the BSRI

supporting evidence : link between androgyny and well-being

Answer 9

Burchardt and Serbin – investigated relationship between androgyny and mental health. M and F participants completed the BSRI and the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory

results showed that androgynous F scored significantly lower for depression and social introversion than feminine females, and were also lower on the schizophrenia and mania scales than masculine females. Androgynous M scored lower on social introversion than female M. This supports the idea that being Androgynous is positively correlated with good mental health

Question 10

limitation of the BSRI

opposing evidence: link androgyny and well being has been challenged

Answer 10

some researchers have argued that people who display more masculine traits are better adjusted to because masculine qualities such as independence and competitiveness are more valued in western society than feminine ones such as co-operation and nurturing

for example, Burchardt and Serbin found that masculine and androgynous males scored equally well, suggesting that masculinity is also linked to positive mental health, especially in males. This matters because it suggests that sex-role conformity relates differently to psychological functioning in males and females

Question 11

weakness of the BSRI

self-report questionaire

Answer 11

1. people could lie to appear better to researcher
2. subjective scoring system
3. demand characteristics

Question 12

weakness of the BSRI

temporal validity

Answer 12

BSRI developed in 1974 and behaviours that are regarded as ‘typical’ or ‘acceptable’ in relation to gender have chnaged a lot since then. Bem’s scale is made up of stereotypical ideas about masculinity and femininity that now may be outdated and lacking in temporal validity

Question 13

weakness of the BSRI

cultural bias

Answer 13

scale was developed from the answers of american students. western views of ‘maleness’ and ‘femaleness’ may not be shared across all cultures.
e.g. Cuddy et al found that americans rated men as less interdependent than women. koreans showed the opposite pattern, rating men as more interdependent than women, deviating from the ‘universal’ gender stereotype of male independence.
America is an individualistic culture which values independence whereas korea is a collectivist culture and values cooperation. this matters because it shows that culture shapes the contents of gender stereotypes, in that men are perceived as possessing more of whatever traits are culturally valued

Question 14

role of chromosomes

gender

Answer 14

Chromosomes are collections of DNA in the nucleus of cells. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, with the 23rd pair determining biological sex. **The chromosomal structure for females is XX and for males is XY. **

All human eggs produced by an ovary have an X chromosome. Half the sperm have an X chromosome and half have a Y chromosome. When a sperm fertilises an egg the resulting embryo will be XY or YY.
The Y chromosome carries a gene called ‘sex-determining region Y’ (SRY). The SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo and androgens (male sex hormones) to be released. Androgens masculinise the embryo so it develops as a male. In the absence of androgens, the embryo develops into a female.

Question 15

role of hormones

gender

Answer 15

* Testosterone masculinises the brain of XY embryos, leading to greater development of the brain areas associated with spatial skills. There are differences in the hypothalamus of males and females, with the sexual dimorphic nucleus being larger in males. Some researchers believe that this difference is due to male sex hormones. Testosterone is also associated with ‘male-type’ behaviours such as competitiveness and aggression.

* Oestrogen is a female sex hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and is involved in controlling the menstrual cycle. Oestrogen is also associated with ‘female-type’ behaviours such as sensitivity and cooperation.

• Oxytocin is referred to as the ‘love hormone’ because it is involved in bonding and is released during hugging, kissing and sex. Females typically produce more oxytocin than males because it also plays a role in childbirth and breastfeeding. The fact that males produce less oxytocin than females supports the stereotype that males are less interested in intimacy in a relationship.

Question 16

supporting evidence for role of chromosomes

case study

Answer 16

David Reimer – ‘normal’ baby boy [called Bruce], experineced an accident at 8 months that led to his penis being cut off. led to him being raised as a girl [called Brenda]
‘brenda’ was unhappy and from age 9 struggled with gender identity, when told the truth at 14, brenda immediantly started living as male

Question 17

evidence to support the role of hormones

transgender

Answer 17

**Van Goozen et al **– studied transgender people who were undergoing hormone treatment and being injected with hormones of the opposite sex
1. transgender women who were recieving oestrogen injections showed decreases in aggression and visuo-spatial skills
2. transgender men who were being injected with testosterone showed the opposite

show imp. bc shows that testosterone and oestrigen do influence

Question 18

evidence to support the role of hormones

rats

Answer 18

Van Leengoed et al – gave female rats an injection shortly after giving birth which would inhibit oxytocin production. the mother rats showed a decrease in maternal behavious such as grooming the babies. when the effect of the injection wore off, normal maternal behaviour resumed

Question 19

limititation of biological approach

oversimplifiying

Answer 19

• takes a reductionist approach - bc reduces behaviour down to the lowesr possible level of explanation – ignores other factors which could effect gender
• a more holistic approach would be to consider the biosocial explanation – this argues that while sex is biologically determined, this then affects the socialisation we recieve which in turn determines our gender idenitity- this theory takes into account the importance of childhood experiences and socialisation as well as innate factors in gender development

Question 20

weakness of the bio approach

over-emphasis, role of nature [study]

Answer 20

• if it was pure biology, behavious would be universal
  MEAD - studied M and F behaviour in 3 tribes in Papua New Guinea
  1. Arapesh - both M and F showed non-aggressive, gentle behaviour associated with femininity in western culturee
  2. Mundugumor - Both M and F behaved in a ‘masculine’ way and were aggressive
  3. Tchambuli - reversed western sex roles, women were assertive and made decisions. Men didn’t make decisions and spent a lot of time on their appearance

Question 21

what syndrome’s are associated in atypical sex chromosome patterns

Answer 21

1. Klinefelter’s syndrome
2. Turner’s syndrome

Question 22

overview of Klinefelter’s syndrome

Answer 22

affects biological males who have an extra X chromosome (XXY). It affects between 1 in 500 and 1 in 1000 people, but two thirds of people with it are unaware.

Question 23

overview of turner’s syndrome

Answer 23

affects biological females who are missing one of the X chromosomes (XO). About 1 in 5000 females have Turner’s syndrome.

Question 24

physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s synfrome

Answer 24

1. Less body hair than average males
2. Gynaecomastia (increased breast tissue)
3. Poorly functioning testicles (sterility)
4. Weaker muscles
5. Taller height than average males

Question 25

psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s synfrome

Answer 25

1. Low libido
2. Below average reading ability and poor language skills
3. Shyness and difficulties with social interaction

Question 26

physical characteristics of Turner’s synfrome

Answer 26

1. No menstrual cycle (sterility)
2. Undeveloped breasts
3. Webbed neck, broad chest, narrow hips
4. Shorter height than average females

Question 27

psychological characteristics of Turner’s synfrome

Answer 27

1. Above average reading abilities
2. Below average mathematics abilities
3. Social immaturity

Question 28

strength of atypical sex chromosome

practical application

Answer 28

Herlihy et al - studied** 87 people with Klinefelter’s** syndrome and found that those who had been diagnosed and treated from a very young age had significantt health benefits compared to those who had been diagnosed in adult hood
* important bc currently as many as 2/3 of people with Klinefelters never recieve a diagnosis so more accurate diagnosis would mean that more of these people could recieve a diagnosis, leading to more positive outcimes for them

Question 29

weakness of of atypical sex chromosome

unrepresentative

Answer 29

only 1/3 of people with Klinefelters are aware they have the condition. this means that those who are involved in psychological research are those who have been diagnosed. they are likely to be at the more severe end of the scake in terms of symptoms, so many not be representative of most people with the syndrome, limiting the generalisation that can be made

Question 30

strength of atypical sex chromosome pattern

understanding the nature-nurture debate

Answer 30

• By comparing people who have these conditions with chromosome-typical people it is possible to see psychological and behavioural differences between the two groups. It could then be inferred that these differences have a biological basis and are the result of the abnormal chromosomal structure.
• This** suggests that innate influences have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour**, supporting the nature side of the debate.
• However, we** need to be cautious in drawing these conclusions**. Social and environmental
  differences may also play a role in the differences in behaviour individuals with Klinefelter’s and Turner’s Syndromes show.
• For example, the social immaturity seen in girls with Turner’s Syndrome could arise from the fact they are treated ‘immaturely’ by people around them due to their pre-pubescent appearance. This could then have an impact on their performance at school (leading to the
  specific learning and developmental problems associated with the syndrome).
  Therefore, we cannot be sure how much of the characteristics are due to nature or nurture.

Question 31

why type of theory is Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 31

cognitive

Question 32

overview of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 32

• Kohlberg’s cognitive developmental theory suggests that children go through a series of stages in their understanding of gender. These stages are linked to underlying changes in the way that children think.
• There is a biological element to Kohlberg’s theory: as a child gets older there is** biological maturation of the brain**. (Maturation means natural, biological change over time). As the brain matures so thinking becomes more sophisticated and children achieve a better understanding of gender.
• There is also a social element as imitation of other children is also important in gender development. Children observe the behaviour of those of the same sex and they model it. However they only seek out and model same sex behaviour once they have reached the final stage of gender constancy. The cognitive change comes first and then the change in behaviour. Only when children realise that gender does not change will they act in a sex-typed way.

Question 33

stages of Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 33

1. gender identity
2. gender stability
3. gender constancy

Question 34

what age are childrens in gender identity

Answer 34

2-3

Question 35

what age are childrens in gender stability

Answer 35

3-4

Question 36

what age are childrens in gender constancy

Answer 36

4-6

Question 37

children during gender identity

Answer 37

The child identifies themself as male or female and can categorise others as male or female. However, the child does not recognise the stability of gender, e.g. that girls grow up to become women, and so a girl might say something like “I’m going to be a daddy when I’m older”.

Question 38

children during gender stability

Answer 38

The child realises that their gender is stable, i.e. that they will remain the same gender for life. However, they may not apply this same stability to others. For example, if a woman does some typically male activity or cuts her hair short, the child may think she is now a man.

Question 39

children during gender constancy

Answer 39

The child realises that theirs and other people’s gender is permanent and constant over time and in different situations despite superficial changes. For example, if a woman cuts her hair short, the child understands that she is still a woman.

Question 40

supporting evidence for Kohlbergs theory

role models

Answer 40

Slaby and Frey - found that after children reach gender constancy they pay more attention to same-sex role models, which is in line with Kohlberg’s predictions.

Question 41

supporting evidence for Kohlbergs theory

imitation of role models when reached gender constancy

Answer 41

Ruble et al (1981) studied 2 groups of children of the same age, but one group had reached gender constancy and the other hadn’t.
* They watched a cartoon. In the middle there was a break in which the children saw an advert. The advert was for a toy, modelled by either 2 boys or 2 girls. They were later given an opportunity to play with the toy.
* Those children who had reached gender constancy would *only play with the toy *if it was** modelled by their own sex. **
* Those who were still in the stage of gender stability would play with
the toy regardless of the sex of the model. This demonstrates that once gender constancy has been reached, children are more rigid in their gender behaviour and will only copy the
behaviour seen as appropriate for their gender.

Question 42

supporting evidence for Kohlbergs theory

stages are universal

Answer 42

Munroe et al (1984) looked at several cultures, including Kenya, Nepal, Samoa, and found the sequence of gender development followed the pattern in Kohlberg’s stage theory. This is important because it suggests that the sequence of stages suggested by Kohlberg is universal.

Question 43

opposing evidence for Kohlberg’s theory

Answer 43

Bussey and Bandura (1992) found that children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ when playing with ‘gender-appropriate’ toys but ‘felt bad’ when playing with ‘gender-inappropriate’
toys.

Question 44

A03 Kohlbergs theory

holistic approach

Answer 44

• One good thing about Kohlberg’s theory is that it is comprehensive and incorporates a number of different approaches. It is **essentially a cognitive theory **emphasising the importance of
  thought processes.
• However, the theory also incorporates ideas from other approaches. There is a role for biology as maturation of the brain underlies the changes in thinking.
• Munroe’s study shows that the
  stages apply to many cultures, suggesting a role for biology.
• Kohlberg also** allows a role for learning, although the ability to learn about gender is restricted by the stage of gender development that a child is at. **Observation and modelling of same sex
  children occurs once a child has reached the correct stage of cognitive development.
  However, Kohlberg can be criticised for ignoring other important biological and social influences such as the role of hormones and the importance of reinforcement from parents.

Question 45

weakness of Kohlbergs theory

methodological probs

Answer 45

Kohlberg’s theory was developed with interviews with children who were in some cases as young as 2-3.
It is argued that Kohlberg may not have acknowledged that very young children
may lack the vocabulary required to express their understanding, so may have complex idea’s about gender but be unable to articulate these.

Question 46

overview of gender schema theory

Answer 46

A schema is a term used by psychologists for a mental structure, or a set of ideas, beliefs and expectations that go together. It is based on the idea that people categorize information in order to make sense of it.
One important schema that we have is our gender schema, which is an organised set of beliefs and expectations related to gender that are learnt through experience. This guides our understanding of our own gender and gender-appropriate behaviour in general.

Question 47

when does gender schema theory say children develop identity

Answer 47

2-3yrs

Question 48

what happens to children at age 2-3 in gender schema theory

Answer 48

• Develop schemas for their own gender.
• Understand that they are male or female and will stay that way.
• Begin to categorise objects and activities as appropriate to one gender or the other
• Develop a sense that their own gender is the ‘in-group’, and identify with that, rejecting ‘out-group’ activities. In group identity boosts children’s self-esteem.
• Concentrate on activities they have decided are gender appropriate, and ignore activities they have come to view as suitable for the opposite sex
• Pay more attention to information that is consistent with their schemas, and reject or ignore inconsistent information.
• As children are more attentive to information relevant to their gender they develop a more detailed gender schema for their own gender. Once they reach the age of about 8 they develop detailed for both genders.

Question 49

supporting evidence for gender schema theory

[3 studies]

Answer 49

Martin and Halverson (1983) found that when children were shown photographs and were then tested a week later they were more likely to remember those photos that showed gender consistent behaviour rather than gender inconsistent behaviour. Children also tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the inconsistent activity. This demonstrates that gender schemas influence how children process and remember information.

Bradbard (1986) showed boys and girls of 4-9 years gender neutral toys but told them that they were either a girl’s toy or a boy’s toy. They spent more time playing with toys labelled as appropriate for their sex, as gender schema theory would predict. A week later they could remember if each toy was a girl or a boy toy, suggesting that this was important information for children so that they had processed it and added it to their gender schemas.

Bussey and Bandura (1992) found boys and girls as young as four explain how they feel better engaging in gender appropriate activities and playing with gender appropriate toys. This
matters as it enhances the validity of the theory and suggests that gender schema’s may
develop earlier than Kohlberg suggested.

Question 50

weakness of gender schema theory

ignores other explanations

Answer 50

Gender schema theory, along with Kohlberg’s theory, focus on the child as an individual, seeking information from the environment about what it is to be male or female.

While the culture or society provides that information, the theories may be too simplistic in that they ignore the role of social learning and modelling in the child’s gender development. Adults and other children, along with the media, contribute to the shaping of both gender behaviour.

Furthermore, some would argue that it ignores biological factors and that chromosomes and hormones could explain gender differences in the behaviours of individuals. So gender Is not purely shaped by gender schemas.

Question 51

Kohlbergs theory A03

deterministic

Answer 51

The theory can be seen as deterministic because having worked out that we are male or female this seems to really limit (control) the way in which we behave and think.
In contrast Bem argues that we have the free will to reject our gender schemas and behave in the way that
we wish.

Question 52

OUTLINE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT. COMPARE KOHLBERG’S THEORY WITH GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (16 MARKS)

AO1 (Outline/Description of Kohlberg’s theory)

Answer 52

Kohlberg suggested that children’s understanding of gender develops in a series of stages, linked with biological maturation of the brain which allows for a more sophisticated understanding of gender. The first stage is gender identity at 2-3 years old in which a child can identify their own gender, rely heavily on external appearances to identify gender, but cannot yet understand that gender is fixed across time and situation. The second stage is gender stability at ages 4-5, children still rely heavily on external appearance, but now understand their own gender is fixed across time and situation, although cannot apply this logic to others. The final stage is gender constancy at ages 6-7, in this stage children understand that their own and others’ genders are fixed across time and situation. Kohlberg associated this with Piaget’s concept of conservation which also develops around 6-7, allowing children to understand that things can remain the same despite changes in appearance. Kohlberg suggested that once children reach gender constancy, they begin to seek same sex role models to identify and imitate.

Question 53

Similarity: Active role in development

OUTLINE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT. COMPARE KOHLBERG’S THEORY WITH GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (16 MARKS)

Some Example AO3 paragraphs (Comparison for this essay)

Answer 53

One similarity between both Kohlberg and gender schema theory is that both theories argue that children actively and independently work out how to behave in a way that is gender appropriate. For example, gender schema theorists argue that children actively seek and pay attention to gender consistent material such as gender appropriate toys. Similarly, Kohlberg argued that after the gender constancy stage, children begin to seek out same sex role models to identify with and begin to imitate their behaviour.

Question 54

Difference: ages of seeking gender appropriate material

OUTLINE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT. COMPARE KOHLBERG’S THEORY WITH GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (16 MARKS)

Some Example AO3 paragraphs (Comparison for this essay)

Answer 54

However, one key difference between gender schema theory and Kohlberg’s theory is that both theories differ in what age children begin seeking gender appropriate material. Kohlberg suggests that children begin to identify and imitate same sex role models when gender constancy is achieved. Whilst, gender schema theory suggests Gender that children acquire gender relevant information before gender constancy (6-7) is achieved and therefore, once they can label themselves as boy/girl (gender identity ages 2-3) they actively sort out information and make sense of the world and this builds their gender schema’s, and that it is these schemas which drive gender role behaviour.
**Note: You could possibly include Bussey and Bandura here to illustrate the difference as it supports gender schema theory but opposes Kohlberg. **

Question 55

Similarity: Determinism:

OUTLINE KOHLBERG’S THEORY OF GENDER DEVELOPMENT. COMPARE KOHLBERG’S THEORY WITH GENDER SCHEMA THEORY (16 MARKS)

Some Example AO3 paragraphs (Comparison for this essay)

Answer 55

Furthermore, both explanations are deterministic. This is because within each theory it assumes that once having achieved gender for Kohlberg, or gender identity for gender schema theory, it limits the way in children think and behave. In contrast Bem argues that we have the free will to reject our gender schemas and behave in the way that we wish.

Question 56

overview of psychodynamic explanation of gender development

Answer 56

According to Freud gender development occurs during the Phallic Stage (3-6 years), Before this stage Freud described children as bisexual i.e. they are neither masculine nor feminine.
During the Phallic Stage girls go through the Electra Complex and boys go through the Oedipus Complex. Boys resolve the Oedipus Complex by identifying with their father and girls resolve the Electra Complex by identifying with their mother. It is through this identification that gender identity occurs.

Question 57

what is the Oedipus complex

Answer 57

According to Freud all young
boys have incestuous desires
towards their mothers. They are
jealous of dad as he is seen as a
rival for his mother’s affections.
However, he fears his father who
is bigger and more powerful than
he is and may castrate him if he
discovers his interest in his
mother. This leads to castration
anxiety. To avoid this the child
identifies with his dad and tries
to be like him (so that one day he
may be able to attract a woman
like his mum). This process is
called identification with the
aggressor.

Question 58

what is the electra complex

Answer 58

According to Jung, a girl in the
Phallic Stage realises she lacks a
penis and experiences penis envy.
She blames her mother for
castrating her and turns to her
father for love and affection,
replacing the desire for a penis
with the desire for a baby. She
sees her mother as a rival for his
love and fears the mother will
abandon her if she discovers her
feelings for the father. To solve
this conflict, she represses the
love for the father and identifies
with the mother, internalising the
female gender role.

Question 59

Identification and internalisation in the psychodynamic gender development

Answer 59

The end result of the Oedipus and Electra Complexes is that children identify with the same sex parent: they look up to them and want to be like them. This **leads to internalisation where the child adopts the attitudes and behaviour of the same sex parent **and they become part of who the child is. Gender identity happens suddenly, all in one go, at the end of the phallic stage. This process of identification and internalisation is stronger in males as they are motivated by a fear of castration rather than abandonment

Question 60

weakness of freud’s theory

against needing a F and M parent to develop ‘appropiate’ gender identity

Answer 60

Theo Sandfort (2010) compared data from 63 children where both parents were lesbians and 68 children from ‘traditional families.

Children raised by lesbian parents felt less pressure to conform to gender stereotypes and were less likely to assume their own gender was superior, but there were no differences in terms of psychosocial adjustment or gender identity.
This contradicts Freud’s theory as it suggests that fathers are not necessary
for healthy gender identity development.

Question 61

weakness of freud

scientific

Answer 61

many of his ideas cant be directly tested as they are unconscious. mkaes the theory pseudoscientific and unable to be falseified

Question 62

social learning theory applied to gender development

Answer 62

Social learning theory regards gender identity and role as a set of behaviours that are learned from the environment (nurture). According to the theory the main way that gender behaviours are learned is **through the process of observation and imitation. **
Children are likely to imitate the gender behaviour of those models who they identify with. This may be within the child’s immediate environment such as parents, teachers, siblings or may be present in the media such as celebrities. Importantly in regards to gender development, **children are more likely to identify with models of the same sex. **
The people around the child will respond to the behaviour of the child (direct reinforcement). A child is more likely to imitate a behaviour that has been reinforced and children are more likely to be praised for gender appropriate behaviours. Both boys and girls may be encouraged to behave in different ways for example through being provided different toys and clothes or being encouraged to act in different ways, such as encouraging boys to engage in rough and tumble play. The way in which boys and girls are encouraged to show distinct gender-appropriate behaviour is known as differential reinforcement.
Children can also learn via vicarious (indirect) reinforcement. Children may observe their role models such as parents/peers being reinforced for gender-appropriate and thus be more likely to imitate those behaviours. E.g., a young girl may see her mother receive a compliment when she wears make-up and this may encourage the girl to replicate this behaviour when she is able. They may also see their role models punished for gender-inappropriate behaviour and thus be less likely to imitate (vicarious punishment). E.g., if a boy sees a friend being teased for playing with dolls, he will be less likely to copy the behaviour.

Question 63

supporting evidence for SLT

Answer 63

Fagot et al (1992) **compared 27 egalitarian families (where mother and father share parenting equally) with 42 traditional families **(where child rearing was carried out by the mother while the father was at work).
When the children were four they were given a range of gender-labelling tasks. Children in traditional families showed more gender role stereotyping at age four than those in the egalitarian families.

This supports the view that parents are important role models in gender development as the children were imitating the gender roles they observed in their own families. Differential reinforcement also seemed influential.

Fagot found that parents who showed
differential reinforcement had children who were quick to develop strong gender preferences. The idea that fathers are more likely to sex type their children was not supported by Fagot. While fathers were found to qive more negative comments to boys engaging in female typical play, mothers were also influential in policing cross sex play.

Question 64

strength of SLT

explain changing gender roles

Answer 64

There exists less of a clear-cut distinction between what people regard as stereotypically masculine and feminine in society now compared to the past. A strength of social learning theory is that it can explain how behaviour can change over time or from culture to culture. ,
shift in social expectations and cultural norms means that new forms of gender behaviour are learnt and reinforced.

It can be argued that there have been** no corresponding changes in individual’s basic biology during this time period, so the changes in gender norms and roles must be due to changes in society**, giving the theory greater explanatory power.

Question 65

comparison of SLT with psychodynamic approach

Answer 65

Freud, in agreement with SLT, would accept that same-sex parents have a key influence in a child’s gender development. However, the psychodynamic approach would suggest that identification with the same sex parent and internalisation of the gender role is an unconscious process. On the other hand, SLT suggests it involves conscious mediational processes.

Question 66

comparison of SLT with biological approach

Answer 66

The ST places little emphasis on the influence of genes and chromosomes and only considers the role of the environment. However,* David Reimer’s* case demonstrated that it was not possible to override chromosomal influence and the masculinising effects of fetal testosterone. He was never comfortable as a girl despite being reinforced for feminine behaviour.

Furthermore, there is also the issue that some aspects of gender role behaviour appear to be universal to all cultures. For example, men are consistently found to be more aggressive than women, regardless of culture. These universal features suggest that some aspects of gender role
may be the result of innate, genetic influences that social learning theory does not take account of.

Perhaps a biosocial approach is more appropriate - innate biological differences are reinforced through social interaction and cultural expectations.

Question 67

what is culture

Answer 67

Culture refers to the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group of people or society

Question 68

culture on our view on what causes gender developments

simple

Answer 68

Studying cultural influences on gender roles allows psychologists to assess the extent to which gender is biological (nature) or a social construct (nurture).
* * If a particular gender role behaviour appears to be consistent across different cultures we might conclude this represents an innate biological difference between males and females.
* * If however, different cultural influences result in differences in gender roles between cultures this would infer gender to be socially constructed, as suggested by social learning theory.

Question 69

influence of culture on gender development

Answer 69

Each culture provides role models that children can observe and imitate. Whether or not children imitate the behaviour will be based on rewards and punishments they expect to receive and see others receiving (vicarious reinforcement). Culture provides information about gender appropriate and gender inappropriate behaviour.

There will be representations of gender in society as well as in books and films etc. Children pay attention to these models and retain their behaviour.

They observe and identify with these role models and will imitate depending on the rewards and punishments they expect from parents and society in general.
So, gender roles are shaped by cultural rather than biological factors

Question 70

A03 of influence of culture on gender developments

cultural similarities

Answer 70

Buss (1989) found consistent patterns in mate preferences in 37 countries across all continents. In all culture women sought men who could offer wealth and resources, whilst men looked for youth and physical attractiveness in a potential partner.

Williams and Best (1990) found that there was universal agreement across cultures about** which characteristics were masculine and feminine **with men being perceived as dominant and independent and women caring and sociable.

Question 71

research into influence of culture that can be criticised

Answer 71

The research by Mead (1935) has been criticised for observer bias and for making sweeping generalisations based on a relatively short period of study.

Furthermore, Freeman (1983)
conducted a follow up study and argued she had been misled by some of her participants and that her preconceptions about what she would find had influenced her recording of events. He said she did not give enough emphasis to the influence of biology, did not spend enough time
with the people and was not familiar enough with the language, although his account has also been challenged.

The research by Williams and Best (1980) has also been criticised because the questionnaire featured no ‘neutral’ option when rating the masculinity of femininity of each adjective. Such a forced choice could have caused exaggeration of the differences between males and females.

Question 72

limitation of research into influence of culture on gender

imposed etic

Answer 72

Conducting cross-cultural research is prone to the problem of an imposed etic. This is because the research may be typically undertaken by Western researchers which means there is a danger that the researchers and their theories and methods impose their own cultural interests and understanding on
the people they are studying. This can result in flawed conclusions being drawn, questioning the validity of the results obtained

Question 73

research into the influence of culture on gender roles raises the nature vs nurture debate

Answer 73

Although cross-cultural research can provide insight into the different cultural practices (nurture) that may influence gender role behaviour, the research cannot solve the nature-nurture debate.

This is because in reality it is practically and theoretically impossible to separate
the two influences.
It could be argued that it may be better understood from an interactionist point of view, for example that some elements are biologically constructed, but also modified by social influences. This could explain the basic cross-cultural similarities in gender roles and
stereotypes, but also explain cross-cultural differences, especially in the types of activities to which gender roles are applied.

Question 74

the influence of media on gender development

Answer 74

Media forms such as television, magazines, social media and music have also been argued to influence the acquisition, shaping and maintenance of gender roles. The media may provide role models with whom children may identify and wish to imitate. **Children will pay attention to models on TV and retain the information. ** According to social learning theory children are likely to select role models of the same sex and who engage in gender-appropriate behaviour (as this is more likely to be reinforced).

Question 75

supporting evidencve for THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Furnham and Farragher

Answer 75

Furnham and Farragher (2000) conducted an analysis of TV adverts and found that men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings. This suggests that the media may play a role in reinforcing widespread social stereotypes concerning male and female behaviour.

Question 76

supporting evidencve for THE EFFECTS OF THE MEDIA ON GENDER DEVELOPMENT

Bee

Answer 76

Bee (2000) found that books including picture books and early reading books are stereotyped and that boys’ TV adverts are likely to be fast and loud compared with those for girls which
are slower, gentler and quieter. This suggests that media gender-role portrayals and influences differ for boys and girls from an early age.

Question 77

SE for influence of media on gender roles

Answer 77

1970s a unique experiment was
conducted in a town in British Colombia
(Canada) that was about to receive a TV signal
for the first time. Nicknamed ‘Notel’ by Tannis
Williams and her team of researchers (1986), the town offered a rare opportunity to examine the effect of new media on the townsfolk.
The researchers carried out** extensive surveys around the town to assess the behaviour and attitudes of the population prior to the introduction of television.** They also collected
similar data from two other neighbouring towns,

Unitel’ (that had access to one TV channel) and
Multitel’ (that had access to several). After a two-year period, all three towns were surveyed again.
Williams et al. noted how gender-stereotypical
attitudes among the children of the three towns
changed over two years. At the beginning of the
study, children in Notel and Unitel displayed
fewer gender-typed views and less evidence of
gender stereotypical behaviour than their Multitel counterparts. At the end of the study, evidence of stereotypes on both of these measures had increased for the children of Notel.

Question 78

strength of research into the influence of media on gender roles is that it has a practical application

Answer 78

Most research has focused on how the media had reinforced gender stereotypes. However, in
recent years there have been many examples of counter-stereotypes in the media (e.g. in the
Disney film Brave) to try to challenge traditional notions of masculinity and femininity.

Pingree (1978) found that when children when were **shown TV adverts featuring women in non-stereotypical roles, gender stereotyping was reduced. However, it was also found that pre-adolescent boys’ stereotype became stronger following exposure to non-traditional models.**

Question 79

limitation on research into influence of media

correlation not caisation

Answer 79

It is generally concluded that the media has considerable influence on the formation and maintenance of children’s gender role stereotypes. However, it is difficult to establish cause and effect within these studies. It can be questioned whether the media is the cause of such social norms by depicting men and women in particular way, or whether the media reflects the
current norms.

Furthermore, studies into the effect of media do not include control groups as the vast majority of children are exposed to some form of media, whereas such groups for comparison would
make the direction easier to establish.

Question 80

what is atypical gender development: gender dysphoria

Answer 80

Gender dysphoria is when an individual may feel a mismatch between their biological sex and their gender identity. Some individuals will identify themselves as transgender and may opt for gender reassignment surgery.

Question 81

diagnostic criterea for gender dysphoria under the DSM-5

Answer 81

1. A marked incongruence between one’s experienced/expressed gender and primary and/or secondary sex characteristics (or in young adolescents, the anticipated secondary sex characteristics)
2. A strong desire to be rid of one’s primary and/or secondary sex characteristics because of a marked incongruence with one’s experienced/expressed gender (or in young adolescents, a desire to prevent the development of the anticipated secondary sex characteristics)

3. A strong desire for the primary and/or secondary sex characteristics of the other gender

4. A strong desire to be of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s designated gender)

5. A strong desire to be treated as the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s designated gender)

6. A strong conviction that one has the typical feelings and reactions of the other gender (or some alternative gender different from one’s designated gender)

Question 82

what is brain sex theory

bio explanation of gender dysphoria

Answer 82

Brain sex theory suggests that GD is caused by specific brain structures that are incompatible with a person’s biological sex. Particular attention has been paid to those areas of the brain that are dimorphic (take different form in males and females).

Question 83

supporting evidence for brain sex theory

A01

Answer 83

Ning Zhou et al (1995) studied the bed nucleus of the stria terminals (BSTc) which is a region of the brain assumed to be fully developed at around age 5 and around 40% larger in males.** In post-mortem studies of 6 male-to-female transgender individuals the BSTc was found to be a similar size to that of a typical female brain. **

This was also confirmed in a follow-up study by Krujiver et al (2000) who studied the same brain region but focused on number of neurons. The study found that 6 transgender individuals showed a sex-reverse identity pattern with an average BSTc neuron in the female range.

Question 84

genetic factors in gender dysphoria

study

Answer 84

Evidence suggests that GD may have a genetic basis. Heylens et al., (2012) compared 23 MZ twins with 21 DZ twins where* one* of each twin pair was diagnosed with GD. They found 39% of the MZ twins were concordant whereas it was 0 for the DZ twin.

Question 85

contradictory evidence for bio explanations of gender dsyphoria

Answer 85

It is claimed that the** BTSc is fully formed at around age 5** so any hormone treatment that an individual may undergo should not have bearing on the BTSc. However, Hulshoff Pol et al., (2005) found that** transgender hormone therapy did affect the size of the BTSc and therefore the differences in the BTSc found among individuals may be the result of hormone therapy rather than the cause of GD**, emphasising difficulty in establishing cause and effect.

Question 86

weakness of bio explanations

oversimplifying

Answer 86

Biological explanations can be criticised for being reductionist due to the tendency to reduce complex conditions and behaviours to simpler genetic, neuroanatomical or hormonal level. This
ignores the role of other contributory factors at a ‘higher’ psychological or social level.

For example, learning theorists argues that individuals may have been reinforced by encouraging or complimenting cross-gender behaviour, or observing it among other individuals. It could be argued an interactionist approach is more appropriate in the case of GD,
a complex condition which is unlikely to be explained by a single influence.

Question 87

weakness of bio explanation of gender dysphoria

twin studies are inconckusive

Answer 87

Many twin studies in this area do not have very high concordance rates for MZ twins e.g. 39% in the Helens study.

Concordance rates are not 100% for MZ twins emphasising the environment must also play a role

MZ twins are likely to have even more similar environments which could account for higher concordance

GD is a rare disorder and the sample sizes of twin studies where an individual has GD tend to be extremely small, limiting the generalisability of the findings

Question 88

socially sensitive research in gender dysphoria

Answer 88

There is evidence to suggest that gender dysphoria is a medical condition caused by biological factors. This would suggest that this disorder is determined from birth. Some people would arque that this means that** the sooner people with GD are able to transition to their preferred gender identity the better**. This then raises socially sensitive issues about how to deal with very young children who are displaying symptoms of GD.

Question 89

social explanation of gender dysphoria [PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY]

Answer 89

Psychoanalytic approaches founded on Freudian concepts state that gender dysphoria could arise from difficulties with establishing gender identity and incomplete resolution of Oedipus and Electra conflict.

Ovesey and Person (1973) emphasise social relationships within the family as the cause of gender dysphoria. They suggest that GD in biological males is caused by a boy experiencing extreme separation anxiety before gender identity has been established. The boy fantasises about a *symbiotic fusion (becoming one entity) with his mother to relieve the separation anxiety. *

This causes the boy to identify strongly with his mother rather than his father as would normally be the case during the resolution of the Oedipus complex. Therefore, instead of developing a male gender identity, the boy develops a female gender identity, resulting in GD.

Question 90

supporting evidence for the role of symbiotic fusion

psychoanlytic theory [social explantions]

Answer 90

Stoller (1973) found that in interviews, males with GD displayed overly close relationships with their mother, suggesting stronger female identification and confused gender identity in the long term

Question 91

psychoanaltic explanation of gender dysphoria has been challenged

Answer 91

Ovesey and Person’s explanation does not provide an adequate account of GD in females as the** theory only applies to male transgender individuals.**

Rekers (1986) suggests that gender disturbance in boys is more likely to be associated with absence of the father than the fear of separation from the mother.

These issues suggest that psychoanalytic theory doesn’t provide a comprehensive account of gender dysphoria.

Question 92

psychoanalytic explanations are difficult to test

Answer 92

Additionally, there is difficulty in testing psychoanalytic explanations due to the difficulties in the testability of the concepts e.g. There is no way of demonstrating the existence of the
unconscious mind and thus the theory is unfalsifiable. Therefore, there is no way of verifying if repressed fantasies centred on the mother trigger gender dysphoria.

Question 93

social constructionism in gender and gender dsymorphia

Answer 93

The social construction theory argues that gender identity doesn’t reflect underlying biological differences between people and that the concept of gender is ‘invented’ or constructed by society.

Society sees gender as binary (either male or female) and for individuals with GD, the gender ‘confusion’ arises because society forces them to ‘pick a side’ and act accordingly. Therefore, GD shouldn’t be seen as a pathological condition but a social phenomenon arising from people being required to choose one of two particular paths.

Question 94

strength of soical constructionism

cultures

Answer 94

Some cultures officially recognise more than two genders, for example in Samoa, Fa’afafine is a third recognised gender, distinct from male and female. Fa’fafine have their own gender roles in Samoan society, different to traditional male and female roles.

This shows that the traditional binary classifications of male and female are culturally determined. Furthermore, the fact that increasing numbers of people now describe themselves as non-binary suggests that cultural understanding is now only beginning to ‘catch up’ with the lived experience of many people.

Question 95

weakness of social constructionism

alternative explanations [bio and cog]

Answer 95

Research has found that the BSTc of transgender individuals is more similar to that of their preferred gender than the gender they were assigned at birth. This suggests that there may be a biological basis to GD rather than it being socially constructed.

Furthermore, Liben and Bigler (2002) proposed a cognitive explanation for GD. They suggested the dual pathway theory whereby one pathway is gender development being affected by gender schema. The second pathway is gender development being affected by the child’s own activities and interests. If this second pathway is dominant, this may cause the schema to be affected. This would lead to androgyny in most cases but could lead to GD in a minority of
children.

So, social explanations of GD mav be incomplete and there are obviously multiple factors involved.