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forensic psych Flashcards

1
Q

what is the american profilling system

A

top-down approach

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2
Q

what does the top-down approach mean

A

means the profillers start with pre-established typology and work down in order to assign offenders to categorise based on evidence from the crime scene

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3
Q

who develpoed the top-down approach and when

A

the FBI’s behavioural science unit in the 1970’s

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4
Q

how was the top down approach developed

A

in depth iterviews with 36 sexually motivated serial killers

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5
Q

what are the two categoires in top-down

A
  1. organised
  2. disorganised
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6
Q

describe the organised catagory

general approach, weapons, evidence, victim, offender

A

general approach - planned and controlled
weapons - brought to scene and taken away
evidence - destroyed or removed
victim - attempts to control (eg restraints), may be carefully chosen (fits a ‘type’)
offender - unknown to victim, socially/sexually contempt, living with partner, above average intelligence, angry/depressed

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7
Q

describe the disorganised catagory

general approach, weapons, evidence, victim, offender

A

general approach - unplanned and chaotic
weapons - improvised, left at scene
evidence - left at scene, no attempt to hide/destroy evidence
victim - little attempt to control, randomly chosen (wrong place, wrong time)
offender - possibly known to victim, socially/sexually inept, living alone, below average intelligence, anxious/psychotic

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8
Q

what is the process of constructing an FBI profile

A
  1. data assimilation (looks at evidence)
  2. crime scene classified (into 1 of 2 types)
  3. crime reconstruction (of sequence of events, behaviour of offender+victim)
  4. profile generation, related to likely offender (eg demographic background, physical characteristic, behaviours)
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9
Q

opposing evidnece to top down

A

Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990)
* compared five groups on their ability to write profiles of a solved murder case
* groups were: expert profilers, detectives with profiling expereince, detectives without profilling experince, clinical psychologists and undergrads
* detectives without profilling experince were significantly more accuarate in predicting characteristics of the murderer than any group

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10
Q

what does Pinizzotto and Finkel’s evidence suggest about top down approach

A
  • not effective
  • waste of time and money training people in top down
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11
Q

limitation of top down

development

A
  • based on static and outdated models of personality
  • assumes offenders have behaviours+motivations that remain consistent consistent across situations – however critics have argued that personality is more dynamic and affected by external factors
    ANOTHER LIMITATION - developed by interview of 36 american killers
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12
Q

limitation of top down

applicability

A
  • only applied to certain crimes eg serial murder and rape
  • especially if they involve practices such as sadistic torture, dissection of the body and acting out fantasies - these offences are rare
  • more common offences such as burgulary dont lend themselves to top-down because the crime scenes reveal very little about the offender
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13
Q

limitation of top down

simplistic

A
  • classification of organised and disorganised is too simplistic
  • many characteristocs of the types aren’t mutally exculsive and instead mnay crime scenes show a combination of characteristics
    Holmes (1998) suggests there are 4 types of serial killer: visionary, mission, hedonistic and power/control
  • limitation because questions validity of top-down approach and the use of two categories for classification
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14
Q

what is britains profiling systen

A

bottom=up approach

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15
Q

what techniques are used in bottom-up

A
  1. investigative psych
  2. geographic profiling
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16
Q

what is investigative psych

A

investigative psychology is the use of scientific psychology and psychological theory to solve crimes and identify criminals.

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17
Q

two aspecvts in investigative psych

A

1.** interpersonal coherence**- his means that the way a criminal behaves when they are committing a crime will be consistent with how they behave in everyday life.
2. statistical analysis- identify common themes and patterns of behaviour across several crime scenes, Statistical data can also be used to provide information about the offender’s location through geographical profiling.

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18
Q

what is geographical profiling

A

use of statistical analysis to make inferences about the offender’s geographical location.

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19
Q

what is the circle hypothesis in regards to geographical profilling

A

says that serial offenders carry out their crimes within a geographical circle. The circle hypothesis also predicts that the offender’s home will be within this circle.

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20
Q

what are the two geographical models for offending locations

A
  1. the marauder
  2. the commuter
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21
Q

where does the marauder commit crime

A

commits crimes within a criminal range from their own home

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22
Q

where does the commuter commit crime

A

Travels away from their own home to an area and then commits crimes within a criminal range of that area

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23
Q

strengths of bottom up approach

A
  1. supporting evidence
  2. wider applications
  3. more scientific
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24
Q

supporting evidence for bottom up

investigative psych

A

David Canter used his bottom-up profiling methods to develop a profile of the ‘Railway Rapist’ – responsible for several rapes and murders of women near railway stations in south-east England in the 1980s. Canter developed the profile of a man in his mid-late 20s, with a criminal record, working in a semi-skilled job, who had a poor relationship with women, knowledge of the railways, and lived near the crime scenes. This profile turned out to closely match the details of the offender, John Duffy, who was found guilty of these crimes.

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25
Q

supporting evidence for bottom up

geographic profiling

A

In addition to Canter and Larkin (1993) above, several studies support the validity of geographical profiling. For example, Canter and Lundrigan (2001) plotted the locations where 120 serial killers disposed of bodies and analysed this data using a statistical technique called smallest space analysis. The researchers found the killers’ homes tended to be in the centre of the plotted area where they disposed of bodies, which supports the validity of geographical profiling.

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26
Q

wider application of bottom up approahc

A

Whereas the top-down approach only really works for crimes with a particular modus operandi, such as rape and murder, the bottom-up approach can be applied to a much wider range of crimes. For example, most burglaries are similar in method and so a top-down approach won’t reveal much about the offender’s profile. However,* geographical profiling only requires the locations of the crimes, and so this bottom-up approach can be applied to basically every type of crime.*

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27
Q

how is bottom up apparoch more scientific

A

relies on objective and measurable data (e.g. plotting geographic locations of crimes), uses mathematical tools (e.g. statistical analysis), and is often based on psychological theory (e.g. interpersonal coherence). Because of this, Canter argues the bottom-up approach is more scientific than the top-down approach, which relies more on intuition and gut-feeling.

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28
Q

weakness of bottom up approach

A

Conflicting evidence: Copson (1995) surveyed 184 UK police officers (UK = bottom-up approach) on the use of offender profiles created by trained profilers. Although 83% of the police surveyed said the profiles were ‘useful’, just 3% of profiles created by trained profilers resulted in identification of the offender. This suggests bottom-up profiles are not particularly useful in practice.

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29
Q

what are the 3 biological explanations for crim. behaviour

A
  1. Atavistic form
  2. Genetics
  3. Neural factors
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30
Q

who created atavistic form

A

lombroso

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31
Q

what is atavistic form

A

proposed that criminals are biologically different from modern humans. He argued that criminals have more in common with our evolutionary ancestors than normal humans do.
The idea is that criminality represents the behaviours of earlier, more savage, pre-human species – like Neanderthals or homo habilis.

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32
Q

examples of facial features of criminal accoridng to lombroso

A
  1. heavy brow
  2. strong jaw
  3. extra fingers/toes
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33
Q

according to lombroso how may diff. criminals look

a murderer and a sex offender

A

argued that murderers typically have curly hair and bloodshot eyes, whereas sex offenders have swollen and fleshy lips

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34
Q

strength of atavistic form

A

Historical influence: Even though Lombroso’s atavistic form explanation is widely dismissed by modern-day scientists, it played an important role in advancing criminology and scientific explanations of criminal behaviour. Prior to Lombroso, explanations of criminal behaviour tended to be religious (e.g. bad spirits, Satan, etc.) or moralistic (e.g. weak-mindedness). In appealing to evolutionary reasoning, Lombroso’s approach shifted the discussion towards more scientific explanations. This paved the way for more scientific explanations of criminal behaviour, such as genetic factors.

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35
Q

what are the weaknesses of atavistic form

A
  1. methodological concerns
  2. alternative explanations
  3. ethical concerns
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36
Q

methodological concerns

weakness of atavistic form

A

A key methodological flaw in Lombroso’s approach was that he did not use a non-criminal control group to compare his measurements of criminals against. Without comparing the features of criminals against the features of non-criminals, it is impossible to say whether criminals do actually have distinctive features that differentiate them from non-criminals as Lombroso claimed.

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37
Q

alternative explanations

weakness of atavistic form

A

Even if it were true that criminals do have distinctive facial structures, there might be other causal reasons for this besides having evolutionarily primitive (atavistic) biology. For example, if someone is ‘ugly’, this could cause other people to treat them badly and this bad treatment could cause a person to engage in criminal behaviour. In this case, the link between physical appearance and criminal behaviour would be the result of environmental factors rather than biological factors (i.e. atavistic form).

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38
Q

ethical concerns

weakness of atavistic form

A

Lombroso’s atatvistic form explanation is socially sensitive because it could lead to stereotyping and discrimination based on the way a person looks.

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39
Q

twin studies to support genetic explanation

2

A
  • Christiansen (1977) analysed the concordance rates for criminal convictions among 3,586 pairs of twins. Among males, concordance rates were 35% for identical twins and 12% for non-identical twins. Among females, the concordance rates were 21% for identical twins and 8% for non-identical twins
  • Lange (1931) compared concordance rates for prison sentences among 13 identical twins and 17 non-identical twins. 10 of the 13 pairs of identical twins (77%) had both spent time in prison, whereas only 2 of the 17 non-identical twins (12%) had both spent time in prison.

These studies show the concordance rates for criminal behaviour are higher among identical twins (who share 100% of their genes) than non-identical twins (who only share 50% of their genes). This supports a role for genetics in explaining criminal behaviour.

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40
Q

further study to support genetic explanation

A

Mednick et al (1984) looked at 14,427 adopted children and compared the likelihood that a child would grow up to engage in criminal activity if their biological parent or adoptive parents were convicted criminals. The results were as follows:
criminal bio+adoptive parents= 24.5%
crim. adoptive+non-crim bio = 14.7%
non-crim adoptive+crim bio = 20%
non-crim bio+adoptive= 13.5%

suggest that having a biological parent who is a criminal is a better predictor of whether the child will go on to be a criminal than if the adoptive parents are crimina

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41
Q

candidate gene linked to criminal behaviour

A

the MAOA gene is linked with aggressive behaviour (see the aggression page for more details), which is in turn linked with criminal behaviour. For example, Brunner et al (1993) studied a family with a history of aggressive and criminal behaviour, and found that all the male members had the MAOA gene. This is an example of a gene that could (partly) explain criminal behaviour.

The MAOA gene affects how neurotransmitters, such as serotonin, are processed. The fact that this gene is associated with criminality thus also supports a neural explanation of criminal behaviour.

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42
Q

strength of genetic explanation

A

supporting evidence

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43
Q

weaknesses of genetic explanation

A
  1. other factors
  2. methodological issues
  3. deterministic
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44
Q

other factors

weakness of genetic explanation

A

If criminal behaviour was entirely determined by genetics, the concordance rate would be 100% among identical twins. However, both Christiansen (1977) and Lange (1931) found the concordance rates for criminal behaviour among identical twins to be less than 100%, which demonstrates that other factors (e.g. different experiences and psychological factors) are needed for a complete explanation of criminal behaviour.

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45
Q

methodological issues

weakness of genetic explanation

A
  • Twin studies: The usual methodological concerns with twin studies apply to Christiansen (1977) and Lange (1931). For example, it’s possible that identical twins are more likely to be treated similarly than non-identical twins due to their identical appearance. This similarity in environment may be (at least partly) responsible for the higher concordance rates for criminality among identical twins than non-identical twins.
  • Adoption studies: There are also methodological issues with adoption studies like Mednick et al (1984), too: Adoptees are often raised by their biological parents for a long time before being adopted, so the correlation between having a biological parent who is a criminal and becoming a criminal could be due (at least in part) to environmental factors rather than genetics.
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46
Q

deterministic

weakness of genetic explanation

A

Genetic explanations are deterministic because they say that a person’s genes are what cause criminal behaviour, not free will. However, this raises legal and moral issues: It is hard to hold someone morally responsible for criminal actions if they didn’t choose them, and so it may seem unfair to punish them.

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47
Q

what are neural explantions for crime

A
  1. brainstructures
  2. neurotransmitters
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48
Q

brain structures

neural explantions for crime

A

Raine et al (1997) compared brain scans conducted on 41 convicted murderers and with brain scans conducted on 41 control participants. The researchers observed that the murderers had reduced activity in the prefrontal cortex, the superior parietal gyrus, left angular gyrus, and the corpus callosum compared to the control group.

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49
Q

neurotransmitters

neural explantions for crime

A

Neurotransmitters, such as serotonin and dopamine, may also explain criminal behaviour. For example,** Brunner et al** (1993) described a link between genes responsible for processing neurotransmitters and violent behaviour. These effects on neurotransmitters may be why these genes increase violent behaviour, suggesting a link between abnormal neurotransmitter activity and criminality.

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50
Q

strengths of neural explanaions of crim behavioue

A

supporting evidence

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51
Q

weaknesses of neural explanation

A
  1. small samples
  2. ethical issues
  3. deterministic
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52
Q

small sample sizes

weakness of neural explanation

A

Studies linking criminal behaviour with neural factors often use small sample sizes. One reason for this is that the population of serious criminals (e.g. murderers) are hard to gain scientific access to. This effect is compounded by the high costs of brain-scanning tools, such as fMRI, which makes it even more difficult to carry out this research on large numbers of people. Because of these small sample sizes, it may be invalid to generalise the findings from these studies to the wider population.

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53
Q

ethical issues

weakness of neural explanation

A

An implication of Raine’s research is that brain scans in childhood could be used to identify potentially violent criminals of the future. This policy, if enacted, could potentially reduce crime but is* socially sensitive because it could lead to discrimination* against people with these brain structures.

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54
Q

deterministic

weakness of neural explanation

A

Neural explanations are biologically deterministic because they say that neural factors are what cause criminal behaviour, not free will. However, this raises legal and moral issues: If someone doesn’t choose their criminal actions, it may seem unfair to hold them morally or legally responsible for them.

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55
Q

what are the psychological explanations of criminal behaviour

A
  1. eysenck’s theory of criminal personality
  2. cognitive explanations
  3. differential association theory
  4. psychodynamic approach
56
Q

what are the 6 aspects of eysencks theory

A
  1. extrovert
  2. introvert
  3. neurotic
  4. stable
  5. psychotic
  6. non-psychotic
57
Q

DEFINE extrovert v.s introvert

eysencks theory

A

An extrovert is someone who is sociable, talkative, more impulsive and risk-taking.
In contrast, an introvert is someone who prefers to spend time alone and is less impulsive and less inclined to take risks.

58
Q

DEFINE neurotic vs stable

eysencks theory

A

A neurotic person is someone who is prone to strong negative emotions such as anxiety, worry, nervousness, and jealousy.
In contrast, a stable person is (as the name suggests) more emotionally stable and calm.

59
Q

DEFINE psychotic vs non-psychotic

eysencks theory

A

A psychotic person lacks empathy, does not feel guilt, and is aggressive and unconventional.
In contrast, the majority of people are non-psychotic – they have a conscience and feel empathy and guilt.

60
Q

apply these traits to criminal behaviour

eysenck

A
  • A** highly extroverted person** is more likely to commit crime because they are more likely to take risks and act impulsively. Extroverts are also thrill-seekers, so the excitement of criminal behaviour is more likely to be appealing.
  • A highly neurotic person feels negative emotions more strongly, which increases the likelihood of them committing a criminal act in the heat of the moment.
  • A **highly psychotic person **is more likely to commit a crime because they are not put off by feelings of guilt or empathy for a potential victim. High psychoticism is also associated with increased aggression, increasing the likelihood of violent criminal behaviour.
61
Q

supporting evidence for eysenck’s theory

A

Sybil Eysenck and Hans Eysenck (1977) compared 2070 prisoners’ scores on the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) with 2422 controls. On measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism - across all the age groups that were sampled - prisoners recorded higher average scores than controls. This agrees with the predictions of the theory that offenders rate higher than average across the three dimensions Eysenck identified.

62
Q

opposing evidence for eysencks theory

A

However, David Farrington et al. (1982) conducted a meta-analysis of relevant studies and reported that offenders tended to score high on measures of psychoticism, but not for extraversion and neuroticism.

There is also inconsistent evidence of differences on EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts (Küssner 2017) which casts doubt on the physiological basis of Eysenck’s theory. This means some of the central assumptions of the criminal personality have been challenged.

63
Q

limitation of eysencks theory

too simplistic

A

Terrie Moffitt (1993) drew a distinction between offending behaviour that only occurs in adolescence (adolescence-limited) and that which continues into adulthood (life-course-persistent). She argued that personality traits alone were
a poor predictor of how long offending behaviour would go on for, in the sense
of whether someone is likely to become a ‘career offender! She considered
persistence in offending behaviour to be the result of a reciprocal process
between individual personality traits on the one hand, and environmental
reactions to those traits on the other.
This presents a more complex picture than Eysenck suggested, that the
course of offending behaviour is determined by an interaction between
personality and the environment.

all offending behaviour is explained by personality traits alone

64
Q

limitation of eysencks theory

cultural factors

A

The criminal personality may vary according to culture. Curt Bartol and Howard Holanchock (1979) studied Hispanic and African-American offenders in a maximum security prison in New York. The researchers divided these offenders into six groups based on their offending history and the nature of their offences. It was found that all six groups were less extravert than a non-offender control group whereas Eysenck would expect them to be more extravert. Bartol and Holanchock suggested that this was because the sample was a very different cultural group from that investigated by Eysenck.

This questions how far the criminal personality can be generalised and
suggests it may be a culturally relative concept.

65
Q

what type of theory is Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning

A

cogntive

66
Q

stages of Kohlbergs theory of moral reasoning

A
  1. Pre conventional morality
  2. Conventional morality
  3. Post conventional morality
67
Q

what is pre-conventional morality

A

concerned with avoiding punishment and personal gain.

68
Q

what is conventional morality

A

concerned with approval from others

69
Q

what is post-conventional morality

A

concerned with rights of others and ethical principles.

70
Q

Kohlberg’s theory applied to criminals

A

Research suggest that criminals tend to show a lower level of moral reasoning than non-criminals. Offenders are more likely to be classified at the pre-conventional level whereas non-criminals usually progress to the conventional level and beyond.
People who reason at the** pre-conventional level are likely to commit crime if they think they can get away with it or gain rewards in the form of money, respect etc**. They are also likely to be more egocentric (self-centred) and display poorer social skills.
People who reason at a higher level tend to sympathise more with the rights of others and exhibit more conventional behaviours such as honesty, generosity and non-violence, so are less likely to commit criminal acts.

71
Q

supporting evidence for Kohlberg’s theory

A

Palmer and Hollin (1998) compared moral reasoning* between female non-offenders, male non-offenders and convicted offenders* using 11 moral dilemma related questions such as not taking things that belong to others and keeping a promise to a friend. The delinquent group showed less mature moral reasoning than the non-delinquent groups, supporting Kohlberg’s predictions.

72
Q

A03 of Kohlberg’s theory

level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence

A

**Thornton and Reid **(1982) found that people who commit crimes for financial gain were more likely to show pre-conventional moral reasoning than those convicted of impulsive crimes such as assault where moral reasoning of any type tended not to be evident.

73
Q

limitation of Kohlberg’s theory

descriptive not explanatory

A
  • Cognitive explanations can be criticised for being descriptive not explanatory. It describes the level of moral reasoning of offenders, but does not explain why offenders have lower levels of moral reasoning.
74
Q

limitation of kohlberg;s theory

gender bias

A

Kohlberg developed these stages through interviews with teenage boys. He suggested these stages are universal and represent the moral reasoning of both males and females. He later carried out research with female participants and** concluded that women generally reach lower levels of moral development than men** however** females are significantly less likely to be convicted of a criminal offence.**

75
Q

what are cognitive distortions

A

These are faulty, biased and irrational ways of thinking that mean we perceive ourselves, other people and the world inaccurately (usually negatively). In terms of criminality, this can affect how criminals interpret other people’s behaviour and justify their own actions.

76
Q

whta is hostile attribution bias

A

the tendency to** judge ambiguous situations or the actions of others as aggressive **and/or threatening when in reality they may not be. Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues (such as being ‘looked at’) and this may trigger a violent response.

77
Q

what is minimalisation

A

is an attempt to downplay or deny the seriousness of an event or emotion. This is a common strategy for dealing with feelings of guilt.

78
Q

studies to show sex offenders are prone to minimalisation

not named just stats

A

* 54% of convicted rapists denied that had committed an offence at all and a further 40% minimised the harm they had caused to their victim.

  • 35% of child molesters argued that their crime was non-sexual (they were ‘just being affectionate’) and **36% stated their victim had consented. **
79
Q

supporting evidence for cognitive distortions

A

Schonenberg and Justye (2014) presented 55 violent offenders with images of emotionally ambiguous facial expressions. When compared with a non-aggressive control group, the offenders were significantly more likely to perceive the images as angry and hostile.

supporrs hostile attribution bias

80
Q

evaluation of cognitive distortions

practical applications

A
  • Understanding cognitive distortions has led to developments in the treatment of criminal behaviour. The dominant approach in the rehabilitation of sex offenders is cognitive behavioural therapy which encourages offenders to ‘face up’ to what they have done and establish a less distorted view of their actions. Studies have found that a reduction of denial and minimalisation is highly correlated with a reduced risk of reoffending.
81
Q

limitation of cognitive distortions

descriptive not explanatory

A

It is a good description of how the criminal mind and thought processes work but doesn’t explain why the offender thinks like this and doesn’t necessarily provide much insight into why a criminal may have committed an offence in the first place. This is in contrast with deterministic approaches such as the biological approach which attempt to establish the cause of criminal behaviour.

82
Q

overview of differential association theory

A

This is a social learning theory of criminal behaviour developed by Sutherland (1939).
He proposed that individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour through* association and interaction with different people*.
Sutherland argued that offending behaviour is acquired in the same way as any other behaviour through the process of learning. This learning most often occurs through interactions with significant others such as the family and peer group.
If an individual experiences repeated attitudes that are positively associated with crime, rather than negatively (in terms of punishment), then they are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.
Criminality arises from two factors: the learning of pro-criminal attitudes and the learning of specific criminal acts.

83
Q

learning pro-criminal attitudes

differential association theory

A

When a person socialises with a group they are exposed to the values and attitudes of the group. If the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person comes to acquire outweighs the number of anti-criminal attitudes they will go on to offend.
The types of crime the person then goes on to commit will depend heavily on the precise nature of the deviant attitudes they have learned. For example, they might regard it as unacceptable to mug someone, but acceptable to falsify their tax returns.

84
Q

learning criminal acts

differential association theory

A

The would-be offender may also learn particular techniques for committing crime. These might include how to break into someone’s house through a locked window or how to disable a car stereo before stealing it

85
Q

supporting evidence of differentiak association theory

A

Farrington et al (2006) carried out a longitudinal study looking at offending behaviour in 411 males from the age of 8 to 50.

41% were convicted of at least one offence between the ages of 10 and 50. The most important ‘risk factors’ at age 8-10 included family criminality, poverty and poor parenting, suggesting they may have* learnt pro-criminal attitudes and criminal acts from their parents*.

86
Q

strength of differential association theory

accounts for crime in all sectors of society

A

While some types of crime, such as burglary, tend to be clustered within inner-city, working class communities, other crimes are more prevalent among more affluent groups in society. White collar or corporate crime may be the result of middleclass groups sharing deviant norms and values.

87
Q

limitation of differential assoctaion theory

not everyone exposed to influences becomes criminal

A

There is a danger within differential association theory of stereotyping people who come from impoverished, crime ridden backgrounds as ‘unavoidably criminal’. This theory suggests that exposure to pro-criminal values produces offending and ignores the fact that people may choose not to offend despite such influences.

88
Q

psychodynamic explanations

blackburn’s inadequate superego theory

A

Freud said that personality is made up of three components; the id, ego and superego. The superego is the last to develop, at the end of the phallic stage of development when children resolve their Oedipus and Electra complexes and identify with their same sex parent. The superego works on the morality principle, punishing with guilt for wrongdoing.

Blackburn (1993) argued that if the superego doesn’t develop properly and is inadequate or deficient then criminal behaviour may occur because the id is given ‘free reign’.

Three types of inadequate superego have been proposed:
1. a weak superego
2. a deviant superego
3. an over-harsh superego

89
Q

the Three types of inadequate superego in blackburns theorys

A
  1. a weak superego
  2. a deviant superego
  3. an over-harsh superego
90
Q

a weak super ego

psychodynamic explanations

A

if the same-gender parent is absent during the phallic stage, a child cannot internalise a fully-formed Superego as there is no opportunity for identification. This would make immoral or offending behaviour more likely.

91
Q

a deviant superego

psychodynamic explanations

A

if the Superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values this would lead to offending behaviour. For instance, a boy who is raised by a criminal father is not likely to associate guilt with wrongdoing.

92
Q

over-harsh superego

psychodynamic explanations

A

a healthy Superego is based on identification with a parent who has firm rules but forgives transgressions. In contrast an excessively punitive or overly harsh parenting style leads to a child with an over-harsh Superego who is crippled by guilt and anxiety. This may (unconsciously) drive the individual to perform criminal acts in order to
satisfy the Superego’s overwhelming need for punishment.

93
Q

what other theory falls under the psychodynamic explantions

A

bowbly’s maternal deprivation

94
Q

supporting evidence of blackburns theory

A

Goreta (1991) conducted a Freudian-style analysis of 10 offenders referred for Psychiatric treatment. In all those assessed disturbances in super-ego formation were diagnosed, specifically unconscious feelings of guilt and need for self-punishment. Therefore, this evidence supports the role of psychic conflict, in particularly an over-harsh super-ego and offending.

95
Q

contradictory evidence for blackburns theory

A
  • There is very little evidence that children raised without a same sex parent are less law-abiding as adults. This contradicts the weak superego argument.
  • If children raised by criminal parents go on to commit crime themselves this **may be due to the influence of genes or socialisation **rather than the formation of a deviant superego.
96
Q

limitation of blackburns theory

gender bias

A

One limitation of Freudian theory is that it is gender biased. An implicit assumption within Freud’s theory is that girls develop a weaker superego that boys because they don’t experience castration anxiety so are less motivated to identify with their mothers than boys are with their fathers. This implies that a female’s super-ego (and therefore sense of morality) is less fully developed and therefore would be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour.
This is a problem because in reality women are significantly less likely to be convicted of a crime, emphasising alpha bias and therefore questioning the validity of the theory.

97
Q

supporting evidence for Bowbly’s maternal deprivation hypothesis

A

Bowlby (1944) studied 44 juvenile thieves who were compared with a control group. 14 thieves were diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths. 12 of these had experienced maternal deprivation in their first 2 years. Only 5 of those who were not affectionless psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation. Only 2 from the non-criminal group had experienced maternal deprivation.

98
Q

what is custodial sentencing

A

is where the offender is punished by being sentenced to spend time in an institution, usually a prison but occasionally a different type of institution such as a psychiatric hospital or a young offenders’ institution

99
Q

what are the 4 aims of custodial sentencing

A
  1. deterrence
  2. incapacitation
  3. retribution
  4. rehabilitation
100
Q

deterrence

aims of custodial sentencing

A

The unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual
(or society at large) from engaging in offending behaviour. Deterrence works on two levels: general deterrence aims to send a broad message to members of a given society that crime will not be tolerated. Individual deterrence should prevent the individual from repeating the same offences in light of their experience. In other words, this view is based on the behaviourist idea of conditioning through vicarious punishment.

101
Q

incapacitation

aims of custodial sentencing

A

The offender is taken out of society to prevent them reoffending as a means of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation is likely to depend upon the severity of the offence and the nature of the offender. For instance, individuals in society will require more protection from a serial murderer or rapist than an elderly person who refuses to pay their council tax.

102
Q

retribution

aims of custodial sentencing

A

Society is enacting revenge for the offence by making the offender
suffer, and the level of suffering should be proportionate to the seriousness of the offence. This is based on the biblical notion of an eye for an eye, that the offender should in some way pay for their actions. Many people see prison as the best possible option in this sense and alternatives to prison are often criticised as soft options.

103
Q

rehabilitation

aims of custodial sentencing

A

In contrast to the above, many people would see the main objective of prison as not being purely to punish, but to reform. Upon release, offender should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society. Prison should provide opportunities to develop skills and training or to access treatment programmes (e.g. for drug addiction or anger), as well as give the offender the chance to reflect on their offence.

104
Q

psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A
  1. stress and depression
  2. institutionalisation
  3. prisonisation
105
Q

stress and depression

psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

Stress and depression are a common reaction at the start of a custodial sentence as the prisoners try to adjust. They may also reappear towards the end of the sentence when prisoners may be concerned about how they will adjust to life outside.

Sleeplessness, restlessness and anxiety are common symptoms of stress. Some prisoners commit suicide or self-harm. Others show signs of psychosis.

106
Q

institutionalisation

psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A

People who have been in prison for a long time get accustomed to the routine of prison life and find it difficult to adjust when released. In prison you are told when to get up, when to go to bed, when to eat, when to exercise etc. and therefore it **might be difficult to cope when you have to make those decisions for yourself. **

107
Q

what is recidivism

A

reoffending

108
Q

problem of recidivism

custodial sentencing

A

The UK has some of the highest rates of recidivism in the world. In 2007 14 prisons in England and Wales recorded reoffending rates of over 70%. Recidivism is generally used as an index of the effectiveness of different judicial sanctions.

109
Q

evidence of psychological effects of custodial sentencing

A
  • In British prisons suicide rates are 15 times higher than those in the general population. They are particularly high in young, single men in the first 24 hours of imprisonment.
  • The Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women and 15% of men in prison showed psychotic symptoms suggesting that prisons may result in psychiatric symptoms in those who are particularly vulnerable.
  • Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison experiment demonstrated how quickly prisoners can become institutionalised and the psychological effects of the prison environment…

This suggests that custodial sentencing may not be effective in rehabilitating the individual, particularly those that are most vulnerable.

110
Q

role of individual differences

eval. of custodial sentencing

A

However, there are individual differences that must be considered, as imprisonment will have different effects on different people it cannot necessarily be assumed that all offenders will act in the same way. Additional factors such as the particular prison, length of sentence and previous experience of the individual are all mitigating factors.

Furthermore, many of those convicted may have had pre-existing psychological and emotional difficulties, which may have explained their behaviour in the first place. For example, Heather (1977) found that 1/5 people sentenced to life imprisonment had psychotic symptoms, although it could be argued unclear whether this was due to imprisonment or these additional factors. Therefore, it is difficult to make general conclusions that apply to every prisoner and every prison

111
Q

The problem of recidivism/School of crime

limitation of custodial sentencing

A

Generally, recidivism research does not support the idea that prison is any more effective than other judicial sanctions. This is because has been argued that imprisonment may increase the likelihood of offending, as opposed to decreasing it. Some argue that prions act as a ‘school of crime’ in which the prison environment may reinforce a criminal lifestyle and criminal norms which can leads to high recidivism rates as individuals may face challenges upon their release. This matter because it questions whether custodial sentencing acts as an effective deterrent if recidivism rates are high.

112
Q

what is behaviour modification in custody

A

Using the principles of operant conditioning to alter behaviour in institutions. The aim is to replace undesirable behaviours with more desirable ones through the use of positive and/or negative reinforcement.

113
Q

examples of behaviour modification in custody

A

token economy

114
Q

what is token economy

A

involves** reinforcing desirable behaviour with a token which can then be exchanged for some sort of reward**. The tokens are a form of secondary reinforcement as they are not rewarding in themselves but are reinforcing because they can be used to ‘buy’ a reward.

115
Q

supporting evidence for behaviour modification

A

Tom Hobbs and Michael Holt (1976) introduced a token economy programme with groups of* young offenders* across three behavioural units (and a fourth unit acted as a ‘control’). They observed a significant difference in positive behaviour compared to the non-token economy group.
Further, Clinton Field et al. (2004) found a token economy programme used with young people with behavioral problems was generally effective, although there were still a number of young people who did not respond. Later these youths were placed on a special programme where the rewards were more immediate and more frequent and the results were more positive.

116
Q

opposing evidence for behaviour modification

A

the success of such systems does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff. John Bassett and Edward Blanchard (1977) found** any benefits were lost if staff applied the techniques inconsistently**. According to the researchers, this was due to factors such as lack of appropriate staff training or high staff tumover (the latter, particularly, is a feature of many UK prisons).

This suggests that behaviour modification schemes must ensure full and
consistent staff participation if they are to work.

117
Q

strength of behaviour modification

easy to implemnet

A

The appeal of behaviour modification (e.g. token economies) rests largely upon the
ease with which it can be administered. There is no need for a specialist professional to be involved as there would be for other forms of treatment such as anger management
Rather, token economy systems can be designed and implemented by virtually anyone in any institution. They are also cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established.

This suggests that behaviour modification techniques can be established in most
prisons and accessed by most prisoners.

118
Q

limitation of behaviour modification

rehabilitive value

A

Ronald Blackbum (1993), behaviour modification has ‘little rehabilitative value’ and any positive changes in behavior that may occur whilst an offender is in prison may quickly be lost when they are released. More cognitive-based treatments, such as anger managerent, may be more likely to lead to permanent behavioural change. Such treatments require the offender to understand the cause of their offending and to take responsibility for their own rehabilitation. In contrast, offenders can fairly easily play along with a token economy system in order to access
the rewards, but this produces little change in their overall character.

119
Q

ethical issues of behavioural modification

A

Behaviour modification programmes have been associated with decreased
conflict within penal institutions and more successful management of the
prison population. This can reduce pressure and stress on prison staff in
what can be a hostile and difficult environment.

However, critics have described behaviour modification as manipulative and dehumanising (Moya and Achtenberg 1974). Participation in the scheme is obligatory rather than optional, and human rights campaigners argue that withdrawal of privileges, such as exercise and contact with loved ones (in the form of withdrawal of tokens), is unethical.

120
Q

what is anger management

A

a programme that involves identifying the triggers to anger as well as learning techniques to calm down and deal with the situation in a positive way. The aim is not to prevent or bottle up anger but to recognise it and manage it.

121
Q

what are the three stages of anger managment

A
  1. cognitive preparation
  2. skill aquisition
  3. application practice
122
Q

[1] cognitive preparation

three stages of anger managment

A

The offender discusses the situations that trigger anger. The offender may interpret events in an irrational way e.g. see other people’s behaviour as hostile when it isn’t. The therapist draws attention to the irrational thinking, hoping to alter the way that the offender thinks about situations- a cognitive change.

123
Q

[2] skill aquistion

three stages of anger managment

A

The offender is taught a range of cognitive and behavioural techniques to help them to deal with anger. One cognitive technique encourages the offender to talk to himself in a positive way in order to keep calm. One behavioural technique is assertiveness training where a person is taught to stand up for themselves and express their views in a non-aggressive way. They may also be taught relaxation techniques.

124
Q

[3] application practice

three stages of anger managment

A

The offender has the opportunity to practice their newly acquired skills in a controlled environment. The therapist and offender act out situations that may have caused anger in the past. The therapist will provide feedback on how the offender has dealt with the situation, including positive reinforcement for a job well done.

125
Q

example of anger managemnet used

A

how anger management is used in prisons in the UK is the National Anger Management Package which was developed in 1992 by the England and Wales Prison Service. The course comprises of eight two-hour sessions, the first seven over a three-week period with the last session a month afterwards.

126
Q

strength of anger managment

better than behaviour managemnet

A

Unlike behaviour modification, anger management tries to tackle one of
the causes of offending - that is, the cognitive processes that trigger anger,
and ultimately, offending behavior. Alternative treatments such as** behaviour modification deal with only surface behaviour and not the processes that drive such behaviour**. Experience of anger management may give offenders new insight into the cause of their criminality and allow them to self-discover ways of managing themselves outside of the prison setting.
This suggests that anger management is more likely than behaviour modification
to lead to permanent behavioural change.

127
Q

limitation of anger managemnet

counterpoint to ‘better than behaviour managemnet’

A

However, follow-up studies of anger management tend not to support this assumption. The general trend is summarised by Ronald Blackburn (1993) who points out that, whilst anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short term, there is very little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long term. This may be because the application phase of treatment still relies on role play which might not properly reflect all the possible triggers that are present in a real-world situation. Any progress made in therapy may count for little when compared to, say, a busy city centre pub on a Saturday night.

128
Q

limitation of anger managemnet

individual differences

A

A study by Kevin Howells et al. (2005) conducted an investigation with Australian offenders. The researchers found that participation in an anger management programme had little overall impact when compared to a control group who received no treatment. However, this was not true for all offenders in the treatment
programme. Significant progress was made with those offenders who had showed intense levels of anger before the programme. Also, offenders who were open to change and highly motivated from the outset (so-called ‘treatment readiness) experienced similar gains.

129
Q

limitation of anger management

expensive

A

Anger management programmes are expensive to run as they require the services of highly-trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. For this reason, many prisons may not have the resources to fund such programmes. In addition, the success of anger management is often based on the commitment of those who participate, and this may be a problem if prisoners are uncooperative and apathetic. Change takes time and this is ultimately likely to add to the expense of delivering effective programmes.

130
Q

what is restorative justice

A

This is a system for dealing with offenders through bringing about reconciliation between the offender and the victim. The aim is to rehabilitate offenders by **enabling them to see the impact of their crime and to empower victims by giving them a ‘voice’. **
The focus is on acceptance of responsibility and positive change of the offender rather than punishment. It is hoped that this will result in a positive outcome for both parties; the victim comes to terms with the crime and the offender will be less likely to re-offend.
A meeting is organised between the offender and the victim in the presence of a trained mediator. The victim is able to explain to the offender how the crime has affected them. The offender is confronted with the impact of their crime and is able to see the distress that the offence has caused.
Sometimes the offender may pay financial compensation to the victim to reflect the psychological or physical damage dome. They could also repair damaged property themselves.

131
Q

supporting evidence of restorative justice

A

Sherman and Strang (2007) carried out a meta-analysis of 36 studies of restorative justice. They found reductions in reoffending rates, particularly for violent and property crimes. Victims were significantly less likely to develop post-traumatic stress disorder

132
Q

strength of restorative justice

flexible

A

Unlike custodial sentencing which tends to adopt a ‘one size fits all’ approach, restorative justice programmes are diverse and there is flexibility in how they can be administered. This is positive because the schemes can be adapted and tailored to the needs of each individual situation.

133
Q

limitation of restorative justice

assessing effectiveness

A

One strength of restorative justice is that it is flexible, however, this means that it is difficult to accurately assess if it works or exactly which aspects of it are effective as all of the studies are measuring different things. It is also difficult to accurately assess recidivism rates as we only know if a person has re-offended if he/ she is caught.

134
Q

limititations of restoratibe justice

motives of offender+victim may not match those intended

A
  • The motives of the offender and the victim may not be those intended by the restorative justice system. The** offender may agree to it to avoid prison or get a reduced sentence** without feeling any genuine remorse for what they have done. The victim may see it as an opportunity to say what they want to the offender as a form of revenge.
135
Q

limitation of restorative justice

drop out

A
  • There are high drop- out rates. It may be very distressing for the victim who therefore chooses not to complete the process. The offender may also back out.
136
Q

limitations of restorative justice

not appropriate in all cases

A
  • It is not appropriate in all cases. Women’s Aid have called for it to be banned in domestic violence cases. Their concerns relate to the power imbalance in the relationship between the abuser and the abused, and that the wider community often blames victims of domestic violence.
137
Q

limitation of restorative justice

lack of support

A

Restorative justice does not always receive public support. It may be regarded as a ‘soft option’ by some people who prefer to see people punished for their crimes

psych paper 3 (4 decks)

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