Gender Flashcards
Define Androgyny
A balance of masculine and feminine traits, behaviours and attitudes. relates to appearance as being neither female nor male
What did Bem (1974) suggest about androgyny?
high androgyny is associated with psychological well-being
Outline BSRI
Bem Sex Role Inventory
a way to measure androgyny.
Items of the BSRI are masculine, fem or neutral.
BSRI has 20 items each and a 7-point scale
4 categories - masculine, feminine, androgynous, and undifferentiated.
Strengths of BSRI
Reliable - a follow-up study with a smaller sample produced similar scores a month later suggesting test re-test reliability
Valid - 200 traits were developed by 50 males and 50 females in terms of gender desirability. the top 20 in each case were used. Piloting the study with 1000 students showed the BSRI reflected their GI
Limitations of BSRI
Unscientific - use of the subjective point scale and self-report.
Lack of temporal validity - US Panel in the 70’s devised the traits & stereotypical traits of fem and masc have since changed. culturally bias and not suitable measure of GI
Define sex
biologically determined by sex chromosomes. It is innate
Define gender
described as being either masculine or feminine, determined by attitudes behaviours and roles we associate with males or females.
Define GD
Where a person’s bio sex and gender identity do not correspond
What are sex-role stereotpyes
social expectations. Shared by a culture/social group & consist of expectations regarding how males and females should behave.
Some have real basis, some can be damaging and harmful
The role of chromosomes
Chromosome pair 23 determines biological sex. The Y chromosome has SRY gene - this causes androgens to produced in a male embryo.
The role of hormones
Gender development is governed by hormones.
Testosterone plays a key role in male development and aggression
Oestrogen plays a key role in female development and behaviour
Oxytocin (reduces stress) is implicated in lactation and bonding
Limitations of the role of chromosomes and hormones
bio explanations are reductionist - reducing gender to just chromosomes and hormones excludes alternative explanations. E.g., psychodynamic & the influence of childhood. suggests gender is more complex that biological influences alone
Ignores social factors - Hofstede (2010) argues that gender roles are more about social factors than gender
strengths of the role of chromosomes and hormones
supporting evidence for the role of testosterone - Wang et al (2000). Testosterone replacement on 227 hypogondal men for 180 days led to improved sexual function, mood and muscle strength.
Syndromes for atypical sex chromosome patterns
Klinefelter Syndromes - XXY chromosomal structure. 1 in 600 males suffers,
Turner’s Syndrome
Syndromes for atypical sex chromosome patterns
Klinefelter Syndromes - XXY chromosomal structure. 1 in 600 males sufferers. caused by an additional X chromosome
Physical characteristics - reduced body hair, some breast development at puberty, underdeveloped genitals,
Psychological characteristics - poor language and reading skills, passive & shy, lack of interest in sexual activity, bad response to stressful situations, issues with problem-solving.
Turner’s Syndrome - XO chromosomal structure. 1 in 5000 sufferers. caused by an absence of one of the two X chromosomes
Physical characteristics - no menstrual cycle, immature body shape, low set ears, webbed neck, underdeveloped breasts
Psychological characteristics - high reading ability, social immaturity, lower than average performance on spatial, visual, memory and mathematical tasks.
Strengths of atypical sex chromosomes patterns
contributions to nature-nurture debate. the suggestion that innate ‘nature influences’ have a powerful effect on psychology and behaviour.
Application to managing conditions.
Herlihy et al. 2011 - a study of 87 individuals with KS showed that those identified when young benefitted in terms of managing their condition.
Outline Kohlberg’s Theory of Gender Development
Cognitive based because a child’s thinking about their gender is emphasised.
Kohlberg identified 3 stages in gender development related to Piaget’s ideas (the way a child thinks changes as they age)
- IDENTITY. age 2+ children are able to identify themselves as boys/girls…their understanding of gender is limited to labelling and they have no sense of the permanence of gender.
- STABILITY. age 4ish realise they will stay the same gender over time but they still cannot apply this to others.
- CONSTANCY. age 6+ children now recognise that gender remains constant across time and situations - they apply this to others!
THIS ALSO MARKS WHERE CHILDREN LOOK FOR ROLE MODELS - they are looking for evidence which confirms their internalised concept of gender.
Strength of Kohlberg’s Theory
supporting research evidence: Damon (1977) and the story of George playing with a doll. 6-year-olds thought it was wrong and 4-6 said it was fine.
Weakness of Kohlberg’s Theory
refuting evidence - Bussey and Bandura (1999) found that children as young as 4 reported ‘feeling good’ about playing with gender-appropriate toys and bad doing the opposite. so concept of gender seems to develop earlier than Kohlberg suggests.
there may be different degrees of constancy - Martin et al (2002)
Gender Schema Theory
Martin and Halverson (1981)
GST suggests understanding changes with age. Schema are mental constructs that develop via experience. So gender schema contain what we know in relation to gender & gender-appropriate behaviour.
GST suggests that a child establishes gender identity (around 2 to 3 years old). The child then begins to look around for further info to develop their schema.
Gender stereotypes then develop.
Ingroup and Outgroups.
Strengths of GST
Research support - Martin and Halverson (1983) found that children under 6 were more likely to recall gender-appropriate photographs than gender-inappropriate ones when tested a week later. Children tended to change the gender of the person carrying out the gender-inappropriate activity in the photographs when asked to recall them.
GST can account for cultural differences. Cherry (2019) argues gender schema not only influences how people process info but also what counts as culturally appropriate gender behaviour. *unlike psychodynamic theory.
Limitations of GST
.
Freud’s Psychoanalytic theory
The phallic stage is the key time for gender development.
pre-phallic stage: children have no concept of gender identity. No understanding of male and female and do not categorise others or themselves this way.
Phallic stage: around 3 - 6 years, boys experience the Oedipus Complex and girls experience the Electra Complex (Jung)
Resolution through identification with the same-sex parent. Identification leads to internalisation.
Strengths for FPT
some support for Oedipus Complex. Rekers and Morey (1990) rated the gender identity of 49 boys (aged 3-11) 75% of those judged ‘gender disturbed’ had no bio or substitute father living with them.
Limitations of FPT
Freud’s theory does not fully explain female development. Penis envy - Horney (1942) - womb envy.
Pseudoscientific - lack of rigour in case studies - no falsification of the unconscious - questions the validity.
Refuting evidence - Bos and Sandfort (2011) 63 lesbian families and 68 traditional - found no differences in gender identity.
outline social learning theory as applied to gender development
Gender is learned through observation and reinforcement in a social context.
Direct - children are reinforced for gender-appropriate behaviour. Differential reinforcement explains why boys and girls learn distinctively different gender behaviours; Indirect - vicarious reinforcement and punishment…
Children identify with role models, and behaviour is modelled and then imitated.
4 mediational processes apply.
Strength of social learning theory
evidence for differential reinforcement - Smith and Lloyd (1978) observed adults with babies aged 4-6 months who (irrespective of their actual sex) were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes. Babies assumed to be boys were encouraged to be adventurous and active… babies assumed to be girls were reinforced for passivity and given dolls.
Limitation of SLT
differential reinforcement may not be the cause of gender differences. Adults may be responding to innate differences within their children.
does not explain the developmental process. E.g., modelling. it is illogical to say that children who are two learn the same way as children who are nine - demonstrated by Kohlberg’s theory. The influence of age and maturation is not considered.
Outline Mead’s (1935) research
Mead’s (1935) research on cultural groups in Samoa supported the cultural determination of gender roles.
Studied three tribes:
Arapesh were both gentle and responsive.
Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile.
Tchamnuli women were dominant whilst men were passive and considered decorative.
Outline Buss’ (1995) research.
Buss (1995) found consistent mate preferences in 37 countries studied across all continents. In all cultures:
* Women sought men offering wealth and resources
* Men looked for youth and physical attractiveness.
Outline the influence of media in gender roles.
The media creates rigid gender stereotypes. Same-sex media role models are preferred - especially when they engage in ‘gender-appropriate’ behaviour. The media also increases self-efficacy.
Bussey and Bandura (1999) on media and gender roles.
the media provides rigid gender stereotypes.
Men are independent, ambitious and advice givers. Women were the opposite.
Furnham and Faragher (2000)
men were more likely to be shown in autonomous roles within professional contexts, whereas women were often seen occupying familial roles within domestic settings.
Issues with Mead’s research?
Freeman (1983) studied the Samoan people after Mead and claimed that Mead had been mislead by some of her ppts. He also claimed Mead’s preconceptions of what she woud find had influenced her reading of events.
Evaluate the influence of culture & media on gender roles.
Evidence of similarities in gender roles across cultures (e..g, Buss) suggests that roles may be biologically determined/innate (nature). However other researchers like Mead support gender roles as transmitted within culture (nurture). Suggesting gender roles are best seen as interactionist.
Bio explanations of GD
Brain sex theory - BST is larger in men than women. Kruijver et al (2000) found trans female patients had a female sized BST.
Genetic Basis - this is indicated in twin studies. Heylens et al (2012) found that nine (39%) of their sample of MZ were concordant for GD.
Social explanations of GD
Social Constructionist - GI was invented by societies (not biological). GD arises because people are required to pick a gender. Therefore due to social factors.
Psychoanalytic Theory - explains male GD in terms of separation anxiety. Ovesey and Pearson (1973) suggest GD in bio males is caused by a child experiencing extreme separation anxiety before GI has been established. The boy fantasises about a symbiotic fusion with his mother to relive anxiety. As a result boy becomes mother and undertakes a female GI.
supporting evidence for GD psychoanalytic theory
Stoller (1973) found that GD in biological males did describe overly close mother-son relationships that would lead to greater female identification and confused GI in the long-term.
Issues with Brain-sex theory?
Kruijiver et al studied BST post-mortem and after trans individuals had received hormones for gender reassignment. this suggests that differences in BST may have been due to hormones rather than the cause of GD.
Issues with psychoanalytic theory of GD?
Oversey and Pearsn’s theory does not explain GD in biological females. Rekers (1986) found that GD in trans females is due to the absence of the father rather than fear of separation from the mother. Suggests, the psychoanalytic theory does not provide a comprehensive explanation for GD.
