Approaches Flashcards
the father of psychology / introspection
Wilhelm Wundt
Pavlov’s Research
Conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell ring
Before conditioning:
UCS = food, UCR = salivation
NS = bell
After conditioning:
CS = bell, CR = salivation
Pavlov showed how a neutral stimulus can elicit a new conditioned response through association
What is CC?
Learning through association
What is OC
Learning through reinforcement - behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequences.
Three types of consequences for behaviour
(OC)
Positive reinforcement - receiving an award when behaviour is performed.
Negative reinforcement - avoiding something unpleasant when a behaviour is performed
Punishment - an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
Skinners research
Skinner - rats and pigeons in ‘Skinner boxes’
When a rat activated a lever it was rewarded with a food pellet.
A desirable consequence led to the behaviour being repeated.
If pressing a level meant avoiding electric shock the behaviour would also be repeated.
Limitation of the behaviourist approach
- concerning determinism
Behaviourism is a form of environmental determinism.
Ignores any influence that free will has on behaviour.
Skinner says it is an illusion. - past conditioning determines outcome
Extreme position that ignores complicated complex decision making processes (COG.)
Strength of the behaviourist approach
- principles of conditioning.
real-world application
principles have been applied to real-world behaviours
Token economy systems used in prisons and psychiatric wards
increases the value of the approach - widespread application.
Bandura’s research (1961) METHOD
Children watched either:
- an adult behaving aggressively towards a bobo doll
- an adult behaving non-aggressively towards a bobo doll
Bandura’s research (1961) FINDINGS
When given their own doll to play with:
- children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive with the doll
the study suggests that children are more likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult ROLE MODEL.
Also, MODELLING aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded (vicarious reinforcement)
What does SLT say about behaviour?
learning takes place in a social context through OBSERVATION and IMITATION of others’ behaviour.
Learning is related to the consequences of behaviour - VR.
Mediational (cog) processes play a crucial role.
Four mediational processes:
Attention (learning)
Retention (learning)
Motor reproduction (performance)
Motivation (performance)
When is identification more likely?
when role models are similar to the observer, attractive and have high status.
Strength of SLT
- cognitive
Emphasises the importance of cog factors.
Neither OC nor CC can offer a comprehensive account of learning because cog factors are omitted.
Humans/animals store info about behaviours of others - use this to make judgements
Shows SLT as more comprehensive because of its recog of the role of mediational processes.
Limitation of SLT
- lab studies
relies too heavily on evidence from contrived lab studies
Banduras ideas - observation in labs - DCs
The main purpose of a bobo doll
thus research tells us little about how children learn agression
Limitation of SLT
- biological
Recent research suggests observational learning is controlled by mirror neurons in the brain - allowing us to emphasise and imitate others. Suggests SLT may make too little reference to biological factors in social learning.
DEMONSTRATED IN BANDURAS RESEARCH - BOYS &THE INFLUENCE OF TESTOSTERONE
what is the cognitive approach?
the scientific study of mental processes
What is meant by the role of inference (cog)
mental processes are ‘private’ and cannot be observed so cog psychologists study them indirectly by making inferences/assumptions about what is going on inside peoples’ heads on the basis of their behaviour
What is schema (cog)
packages of information developed through experience…act as mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cog system.
As we get older, our schema gets more detailed and sophisticated.
theoretical models (cog)
explain mental processes. the info-processing approach suggests that information flows through a sequence of stages that include input, storage, retrieval
computer models (cog)
explain mental processes. Comp models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind. By running such programmes psychologists can test their ideas about information processing.
what is cognitive neuroscience?
the scientific study of the influence of brain structures (neuro) on mental processing (cognition)
advances in brain scanning tech mean scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing.
strength of cog approach
- everyday life
Application to everyday life
The CA is dominant in psych today & has been applied to practical/theoretical contexts.
AI, treatment of depression, development of robots
Supports the value of the cog approach
limitation of the cog approach
- computer models
based on Machine reductionism
although there are similarities, the computer analogy has been criticised.
e.g., emotion and motivation influence the accuracy of recall in EWT
Machine reductionism may weaken the approaches validity
strength of the cog approach
- methods
the CA uses scientific and objective methods.
Cog psychologists employ controlled rigourous and controlled methods of study. e.g., lab studies in order to infer cog processes at work
& cog and bio come together (cog neuroscience) enhancing the scientific basis of the study
the biological approach suggests…
to fully understand human behaviour we must look to biological structures and processes within the body such as genes and neurochemistry.
genotypes are:
(bio)
a person’s genetic makeup
phenotypes are:
(bio)
the way that genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics.
neurochemistry
(bio)
refers to the action of chemicals in the brain - neurotransmitters transmit messages.
An imbalance of neurotransmitters may be the cause of some mental disorders
genetic basis of behaviour
(bio)
psychological characteristics are inherited.
Twin studies are used to investigate genetic influences - high concordance rates are evidence of genetic basis.
theory of evolution as used by the biological approach to explain behaviour…
Darwin (1859 proposed his theory of natural selection.
Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed to future generations…such genes are called ‘adaptive’ and give their possessor and their offspring advantages.
strength of bio approach
- drugs
real world application
understanding neurochemical processes in the brain leads to psychoactive drugs to treat mental disorders.
e.g., clinical depression - increase levels of neurotransmitter serotonin at the synapse and reduce symptoms.
this means that people with depression…
COUNTERPOINT:
Cipriani (2018) compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in their effectiveness - they don’t work for everyone.
Challenges the value of the approach - neurochemistry doesn’t account for all cases of depression!!!
limitation of bio approach
- determinism
bio explanations are determinist
they see behaviour as governed only by uncontrollable internal genetic causes
ignores mediating factors of the environment (e.g., genotype/ phenotype)
too simplistic!!!
limitation of bio approach
- determinism
bio explanations are determinist
they see behaviour as governed only by uncontrollable internal genetic causes
ignores mediating factors of the environment (e.g., genotype/ phenotype)
too simplistic!!!
what does Freud suggest the mind is made up of ??
(psychodynamic)
- conscious (what we are aware of)
- preconscious (thoughts we may become aware of through dreams &’Freudian slips’ )
- unconscious (storehouse of biological drives and instincts that influence our behaviour)
tripartite structure of personality
personality has three parts:
- Id - primitive part of the personality operates on the pleasure principle, demands instant gratification
- Ego - works on the reality principle and is the mediator between the Id and Superego
- Superego - the internalised sense of right and wrong, based on the morality principle. Punishes ego through guilt - appears age 5
The psychosexual stages
Determine adult personality. Each stage marks a different conflict. If child does not resolve conflict, then they develop a fixation - child becomes ‘stuck’ and carries behaviour associated with that stage through adult life
Oral (0-1) pleasure focus = mouth, mother’s breast is the object of desire
Anal (1-3) pleasure focus = anus, child gains pleasure from withholding & eliminating faeces.
Phallic (3-6) pleasure focus = genital area
Latent - earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital (puberty) - sexual desires become conscious
the oedipus complex
a psychosexual conflict at the phallic stage.
boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mothers and hatred for their fathers. later, boys repress these feelings and identify with the father - taking on gender roles
girls of the same age experience penis envy.
defence mechanisms
used by the ego to reduce anxiety.
repression - forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.
denial - refusing to acknowledge reality
displacement - transferring feelings from their true target onto a substitute
humanistic psychologists argue
humans are affected by external and internal influences but have free will
psychology should concern itself with subjective experience rather than general laws - a person-centred approach
humanistic psychologists argue
humans are affected by external and internal influences but have free will
psychology should concern itself with subjective experience rather than general laws - a person-centred approach
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
(bottom to top)
physiological needs
safety and security
love and belonging
self-esteem
self-actualisation
roger’s client centred therapy
unconditional postiive regard.
limitation of the humanistic approach
may be culturally biased.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
