gender Flashcards
What is the difference between gender and sex ?
gender is who a person is in terms of masculinity and femininity (psychosocial status) related to attitudes, roles and behaviours associated with being male or female
(heavily influenced by cultural and social norms may be fluid) {nurture}
gender identity: own perception of themselves as masculine or feminine
Sex is the biological fact of being a man or woman (difference in genitals at birth, chromosome pattern and hormone levels) {nature, innate}
sex identity: biological status
Outline the case study of the Batista boys in terms of biological approach to gender development (demonstrates relationship between sex and gender)
4 children were identified as girls at birth (Dominican Republic) however until puberty, they “changed” into males (testicles appeared and they grew penises)
-proven to suffer from a rare genetic disorder (normal XY males but male genitalia were not external at birth)
boys actually abandoned their female gender identity and had few problems of adjustment, adapting to new roles as boys and males
-> gender identity may be flexible rather than fixed
sex role stereotypes
-concerns qualities and characteristics expected of members of each sex -> applied as rules
-shared by many people, viewed as “expected” qualities
-teaches males and females what qualities are seen as masculine or feminine -> creating norms that people feel pressured to conform to
-qualities of masculinity and femininity are results of socialisation
(females: nurturing, domestic, emotional)
(male: aggressive, strong, independent)
issues of sex role stereotypes
- exhibiting behaviours that are consistent with gender stereotypes are reinforced (inconsistencies are often downplayed)
2.over-emphasis of expected differences between genders
-taught at an early age, children might pick up roles quickly and police other children (putting pressure in correcting them to exhibit “appropriate”behaviours) affect school life -> career choice
-sex role stereotypes are further reinforced by media (consistency across cultures male:aggressive females:passive)
evaluation of sex role stereotype
research support: baby dressed in yellow (gender not revealed or was told to be a girl or boy)
left to play with make toy (ball) female toll (doll) and gender neutral (plastic ring)
-“female” baby given doll
-“boy” non-stereotypical toys
not given gender- try to assess the baby’s gender by testing its strength
the gender the adult believes strongly influences their behaviour towards the infant, socialisation and parental feedback plays important part in development and maintenance of sex role stereotypes
teachers perpetuate gender role stereotype in schools
give reinforcements to boys for cleverness and neatness for girls
-secondary school children found to view subjects as either masculine or feminine
-caring professions are also seen as unsuitable for males as most of the primary school teachers in UK are females
–> sex role stereotypes are reinforced over the course of life in different milestones
evidence of sex role stereotypes might lack temporal (historical) validity
-completed between 1975-1992 (long time Aho) most recent in 2014
efforts are made to make children less sensitive to stereotypes and consider characteristics acceptable regardless of gender
possible to address negative stereotype by modelling neutral roles to children - more people are bringing up their children as gender neutral (society also tends to be more accepting as time passes) social learning theory
Define androgyny
Bem introduced the concept of psychological androgyny-> a person can be both feminine and masculine (contrasts with the traditional view that they are two separate clusters)
-> more psychologically healthy to avoid fixed sexual stereotypes
Bem designed the “Ben Sex Role Inventory” (BSSI) to measure androgyny
-designed in the 1970s based on the view of US college students of stereotypically male and female behaviours.
BSRI is a questionnaire given to individual participants and consists of 60 traits
- respondents rate themselves on a 7-point scale (where 1 is ‘never true of me’ and 7 is ‘always true of me’)
(a)20 characteristics that would be commonly identified as masculine (such as competitive and masculine)
(b)20 that would be identified as feminine (including tender and gentle)
(c) 20 ‘neutral’ traits are also included in the scale.
The scores are then translated into two dimensions, masculinity-femininity and androgynous-neutral.
research evidence to support
BSRI has a high retest reliability
researchers set out to test the idea that “being androgynous is desirable as the balance of male and female characteristics would lead to individual achieving good mental health”
-female and male graduates and psychiatric inpatients (female and male)
completed two test (BSRI and a test on personality) classified as masculine, feminine, androgynous or undifferentiated personalities.
Findings:
Androgynous females – lower depression, and social introversion than feminine females
-In the uni students sample, also lower on schizophrenia than masculine females.
- hospitalised male sample, this pattern was partially sustained with androgynous and masculine participants significantly less deviant than feminine males (lower in depression)
Conclusion:
Being androgynous is positively correlated with good mental health, especially for reducing depression.
validity of BSRI questioned (intervening variable - self esteem) (response bias)
adjs in BSRI are socially desirable (people who scored high on both mass and fem would also have higher self esteem) reduces the internal validity of the questionnaire
Androgyny explains self esteem instead of psychological healthiness
scores might bee artefact of measurement instead of representing a true difference (some individuals tends to select ans at higher ends-> classified as androgynous)
androgyny and wellbeing might not be related
- idea that androgynous individuals are more psychologically healthy as they are best to handle situations that call for masc fem androgynous response
-HOWEVER this is challenged as masc traits for example are more valued in individualistic cultures
lack temporal validity as BSRI was created more than 40 years ago
-Lack generalisability
-considerable changes in behaviour considered to be “normal” and “acceptable” regarding gender
-BEM scale made up of stereotypes of masculinity and femininity that might be irrelevant now
-concepts of male and female identity in US do not entirely represent all cultures in the world
masculine bias in BSRI
masculine bias in Western cultures
traits like independence and competitiveness are valued more than cooperation and nurturing
(fit research findings of masculinity being found to be at least equally associated with positive mental health compared with androgyny)
what are the three main hormones involved in determining sex and gender
- testosterone
2.oestrogen
3.oxytocin
aka A Hormone is a chemical substance circulated in the blood that regulates the activity of a targeted cell or organ.
Outline the role of testosterone
produced mainly in the male testes, it is also produced in the ovaries but in a much smaller amount.
-responsible for secondary sexual characteristics (deepen voice and facial hair)
-affect brain development (XX females exposed prenatally to large male hormones showed more tomboyish behaviour)
-associated with aggression
Outline the role of Oestrogen
Oestrogen is primarily an important hormone in females
-plays a vital role in the menstrual cycle and reproductive system.
-a dominant role from puberty onwards promoting secondary sexual characteristics, such as breast development and directing the menstrual cycle.
Outline role of oxytocin
-evokes feelings of calmness and contentment
-causes the contraction of the uterus during labour, it also stimulates lactation and is known to increase the bond between the mother and infant.
-dampens fight or flight response (tend or befriend response is triggered)
-Fluctuations= irritability or PMT.
lowered levels of oestrogen are associated with menopause
-promotes neural connections for a more ‘distributed’ female brain (equal use of both hemispheres),
However, testosterone dampens the effects of oxytocin in men.
development of two sex by fertilisation
egg cells (human ovary) have an X chromosome.
-Half the sperm carry an X, half Y
-The baby’s sex is determined by the sperm that fertilises
the egg (female if it has an X)
-The Y chromosome carries a gene called ‘sex role
determining region Y’ (SRY gene) and causes testes to develop in an XY embryo = produce androgens (male sex hormones)= embryo to become male
thesis of biological approach + gender the physical
(ex. testosterone in detail)
the physical differences in sex which cause gendered behaviour (act masculine or feminine =genes and hormones influence their behaviour)
-The SRY gene, by week 8 of gestation produce hormones=testosterone
-another surge in testosterone shortly after birth and lasts for
(6 months) further development of male sex organs.
-masculinisation of the male brain (hypothalamus, greater development of spatial skills, competitiveness and aggression)
AO3 Evaluation : Biological determinism (David Reimer)
intersex(David) could be successfully raised as either boy or girl (but he showed strong male identity despite being raised as a girl) biological factors has key role> sex of rearing
(extra: supported by studies of 16 genetic males without penis: half reassigned sex as male despite being raised as females)
interaction of biological factors with the external world
Genetics and hormones interact with social stimuli.
- #Combinations vary considerably
Batista family: 4 children born with female genitals has appeared with men genitalia after large amounts of testosterone during puberty (genetically XY since birth but did not appear due to inherited gene=testosterone insensitivity)
-transition is smooth due to more fluidity to gender roles compared to other western cultures) gender fluidity normal
CAH – XX females with high male hormone levels may have some male genitalia
- just ‘male’ and ‘female’= simplistic.
implications to real world
-Intersex Society of North America= no surgery conducted until individuals make the choice
-understanding the basis of unusual genetic variants has ensured a range of helpful
treatments are now available.
biological approach is reductionist
focus purely on chromosomal and hormonal influence, a holistic approach should be taken Recognises other factors.
the lowest level of explanation (chromosomes and
hormones) ignore alternative influences
(cognitive approach= changing thought processes, schemas)
- not considered by the biological model, ignores socialisation – SLT( social context in the learning of gender identity, copy behaviour of modelling)
The psychodynamic approach (interaction with adults during childhood as pivotal to gender
development, , successful transition to male adulthood represented by the
progression through the Oedipus complex at around the age of 5) ( gender identity is
interlinked =understanding of their relationship with their mother)
The role of chromosomes and hormones: how male and female chromosome patterns
Chromosomes carry all the genetic information (genes) for an organism, the 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex (Sex chromosome)
Female genotype: XX
male genotype: XY
Two syndromes as a result of atypical sex patterns
Klinefelter’s syndrome (in male)
one added sex chromosome (XXY)
biological male (less muscular body, growth of breast)
Turner syndrome (in female)
missing X chromosome (X)
short neck, webbed appearance
Klinefelter’s syndrome
1 in around 1000 males, extra X chromosome (XXY). They have 47 chromosomes, one added to the 23rd pair (the sex chromosomes) instead of 46.
psychological characteristics, they may have poorly developed language skills, lack interest in sexual activity.
reduced body hair, long, lanky limbs, susceptible to health problems often found in females such as breast cancer.
