Gender Flashcards
Define sex
The biological difference between men & women
Define gender
The psychological & cultural differences between men & women
Define androgyny
Displaying a balance of feminine & masculine traits in one’s personality
What are some sex role stereotypes for women?
Timid & shy personalities
Having long hair
Wearing lighter/brighter colours
What are some sex role stereotypes for men?
Aggressive & confident personalities
Being the breadwinner
Avoiding emotions
What study acts as research support for sex role stereotypes having a biological basis?
Ingalhalikar et al’s study
What did Ingalhalikar et al do in their study?
MRI’d the brains of just under a 1000 (949) young men & women
What were the findings of Ingalhalikar et al’s study?
Women had greater connections between their hemispheres
Men had greater connections within a hemisphere
What did the findings of Ingalhalikar et al’s study suggest?
Women are biologically suited to multitasking and men may be better at one more complicated task at a time
Which couple raised their child to have no set gender?
Beck Laxton & Kieran Cooper - didnt reveal their child’s sex, no TV and letting the child play with/wear whatever they chose for the first 5 years of their life
What did Beck Laxton and Kieran Cooper’s child alternate between?
The child alternated between ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ clothes and activities - not displaying either strongly (androgynous)
What did Bem develop?
The bem sex role inventory to measure androgyny
What was Bem’s procedure in developing the BSRI?
20 masc, 20 fem & 20 neutral traits 1000 students asked to self report - it was found at the end that the participants own description of their gender corresponded with the results
What are some examples of the ‘masculine’ traits included in the BSRI
Aggressive
Athletic
Dominant
What are some examples of ‘feminine’ traits included in the BSRI?
Affectionate
Cheerful
Loves children
What are some examples of ‘neutral’ traits included in the BSRI?
Friendly
Happy
Secretive
Likeable
What were the 4 possible classifications from the BSRI?
Undifferentiated - displaying a low balance of masculine and feminine traits in one’s personality
Androgynous - displaying a high balance of masculine and feminine traits in one’s personality
Masculine - high masc low fem
Feminine - high fem low masc
What is strength of research into sex role stereotypes?
Scientific: majority of research within this area uses scientific methods e.g. Ingalhalikar et al used brain scanning techniques which are objective and show biological mechanisms involved in sex - adds scientific credibility to research into sex role stereotypes - boosts validity
What is a limitation of research into sex role stereotypes?
Socially sensitive: potentially consequences for men & women e.g. Ingalhalikar et al’s research suggests that men and women are better at different tasks which could influence ideas surrounding suitability of jobs for men and women - unintentionally promoting workplace discrimination- therefore psychologists must ensure their findings arent used to justify gender discrimination
What are two strengths of Bem’s BSRI?
Reliability & validity: when Bem piloted the BSRI it was with over 1000 students - their classification matched their self identification (enhances validity of the BSRI) - when she repeated this trial run with the same students they got the same classification (test-retest reliability) - the BSRI meets scientific criteria and therefore has scientific credibility
Unbiased: there was a panel of 50 men and 50 women who were asked to rank over 200 qualities associated with masculinity and femininity in terms of how desirable they were for men & women - the traits with the highest score in each category were used for the BSRI - lack of researcher bias increases validity of results
What are 3 limitations of the BSRI?
Self report/lack of insight: asking ppts to rate themselves relies on them having a comprehensive understanding & acceptance of their own personality and behaviours which they may not have e.g. the scoring system is subjective and so ppts interpretation of the meaning of the scores differs meaning it may be difficult to judge how “cheerful” & “aggressive” you are using a scale of numbers - therefore self report techniques may not be the most effective way of measuring androgyny and could distort the results (diminishing validity)
Historical bias: the BSRI is low in temporal validity as it was developed over 40 years ago so ‘typical’ gender behaviours and norms have developed/changed since then - the scale is based on stereotypical ideas of masculine & femininity that may now be outdated e.g. the ‘dependent’ trait (related to masc) as women are now perceived as more independent and majority work - whereas at the time women in the workplace was rare
Cultural bias: an American researcher, students and notions of masculinity and femininity rooted in western gender ideals/expectations - potentially at risk of imposed etic if universality is claimed without conducting cross cultural research to solidify the validity of the BSRI across cultures
What is the chromosomal pattern for women?
XX
What is the chromosomal pattern for men?
XY
Chromosomes are in the ______ of our cells and are made up of _____ split into sections called _____
Nuclei
DNA
Genes
Genes have _______ functions
Different
All egg cells carry an __ chromosome
X
Half of sperm cells carry the __ chromosome and the other half carry the __ chromosome
Y
X
Humans generally have ____ chromosomes in ___ pairs
46
23
The ___rd pair of chromosomes determines sex
23
What does the Y chromosome carry?
Sex determining region (SRY gene)
What does the SRY gene cause?
Causes testes to develop and is where androgens are produced
What are androgens?
Male hormones
The ___________ approach believes sex determines gender
Biological
Which hormones are most predominantly associated with sex and gender development?
Testosterone
Oxytocin
Oestrogen
What is the role of testosterone in sex and gender development?
An androgen predominantly found and produced in men - controls development of male sex organs which are produced at around 8 weeks - responsible for ‘masculine’ features such as facial hair
What is the role of oestrogen in sex and gender development?
Predominantly female released from the ovaries - controls development of female sex organs & menstruation during puberty
What is the role of oxytocin in sex and gender development?
Higher levels found in women - produced in the hypothalamus gland - known as the ‘love hormone’ - produced during labour/childbirth which reduces stress hormone cortisol and stimulates lactation - suggested men produce less but evidence shows equal amounts during intimacy
The biological approach claims that all things psychological have a _________ basis
Biological basis
What are two strengths of the biological approach to gender development?
Case study support: David Reimer - a botched circumcision left him without a penis - psychologist John Money claimed environment was more important than biology and the parents should raise David as a girl - by his teens ‘Brenda’ was suffering with emotional and psychological problems and when eventually told the truth reverted to life as a man - this suggests environment cant override an individuals biological basis and attempting to do so leads to psychological distress - boosts validity of BE
Research support - Van Goozen found that biological females who were transitioning to males reported they were becoming more aggressive (taking testosterone supplements) and bio males transitioning to females reported they were less aggressive (taking test blockers) - outlines that there are biological differences in men & women e.g. aggression and that sex hormones do have influence on gender related behaviours - boosts validity of BE
What are two limitations of the biological approach to gender development?
Contradictory evidence: evidence suggests that gender development is not related to hormones & chromosomes - Tricker et al had 43 male ppts given either a weekly injection of testosterone or a placebo (unaware as to which they are given) - he found there was no difference in aggression after two weeks between the groups - suggests hormones do not influence gender behaviours as aggression is stereotyped as a masculine trait - diminishing the validity of the BE and limiting its application to specific traits not all gendered behaviours
Reductionist: ignores nurture (SLT) and psychodynamic explanations - the psychodynamic explanation believes our unconscious mind has an effect on development and behaviour e.g. Freud states the Oedipus and Electra complexes lead to our gender development and the way to resolve this conflict is to identify with the same sex parents and internalise their traits - the BE is incomplete and therefore cant be accurately applied as the full reason for gender development
Too simplistic - classifying sex and gender may not be as straightforward as it seems e.g. congenital adrenal hyperplasia and androgen insensitivity syndrome
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia?
A prenatal genetic condition where sufferers have high levels of androgens - it leads to girls being born with ambiguous genitalia due to masculinising androgens (flooded with androgens)
What is androgen sensitivity syndrome (IAS)?
A prenatal genetic condition where the sufferers body doesn’t respond to androgens - leads to boys being born with ambiguous genitalia as male sex organ development doesn’t occur as it should
Klinefelter’s is characterised by a male sex chromosome pattern of _____
XXY
Klinefelters affects _____ who have a total of _____ chromosomes
Men
47
Turner’s syndrome affects _________ who have a total of ____ chromosomes - the 23rd pattern being ____
Women
45
XO (O being the missing one)
What are the physical characteristics of Klinefelter’s syndrome?
Reduced body hair
Breast development
Round/ softened mid sections
Long limbs
Underdeveloped genitals (sterile)
Clumsiness
What are the psychological characteristics of Klinefelter’s?
Poor language & reading skills
Shy/lack of interest in sexual activity
Don’t respond well to stress
What are the physical characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
No menstrual cycle
Sterile (ovaries fail to develop)
Broad ‘shield’ chest
Webbed neck
Low set ears
Physically immature (pre-pubescent)
What are the psychological characteristics of Turner’s syndrome?
Higher than average reading (generally good literacy skills)
Spatial visual & math ability lower than average
Socially immature, difficulty relating to others
Those with Klinefelter’s syndrome are more susceptible to ‘female’ health issues such as….
Breast cancer
How is Klinefelter’s treated?
Testosterone supplements - help muscle development, deepens voice and stimulates body hair growth
How is Turner’s treated?
Oestrogen supplements e.g. HGH - increases height and taken during puberty to stimulate breast development to begin a menstrual cycle
What is a strength of the biological approach to studying people with atypical sex chromosomes?
Practical application - the more we research Klinefelter’s and Turner’s the better therapies we can put it place - this can aid in earlier diagnosis which is more imperative for Turner’s syndrome as growth hormones are more effective during puberty
Supports nature - outlines the psychological differences between those with atypical and typical patterns suggests a biological basis is responsible for abnormal chromosome structure - supports the role of nature ( the role of chromosomes in gender development)
What is a limitation of the biological approach to studying people with atypical sex chromosomes?
Neglects nurture - perhaps women & men with Turner’s & KF are treated differently due to their physical features which therefore contributes to their psychological differences e.g. women with Turner’s are typically small this could mean people infantilise them which makes them socially immature
Sampling bias - our knowledge surrounding the condition stems from the most severe cases which means our knowledge may be inaccurate as results are skewed and don’t consider those with less prominent side effects - ineffectual
According to Freud at which psychosexual stage do we develop our gender identities?
Phallic stage - the child learns to realise the differences between males and females and becomes aware of sexuality
What did Freud call children before the phallic stage?
‘Bisexual’ - have no gender identity yet - fluctuate between the two
What does the oedipus complex lead to in terms of gender identity?
Incestuous love for their mothers/hatred for dad
Castration anxiety
Identifies with dad - LEADS TO INTERNALISATION OF DAD’S GENDER IDENTITY
What did the Elektra complex lead to in terms of gender identity?
Incestuous love for Dad/hatred for mum
Experience penis envy believe mum has castrated them
Swap for the want for a baby
Identify with mum - LEADS TO INTERNALISATION OF HER FEMININE IDENTITY
What is the purpose of identifying with same sex parents?
To resolve conflict during the phallic stage
What do children internalise as a result of identifying with their same sex parent?
Their same sex parents gender identity
What did little Hans do according to Freud to be able to identify with his father?
Little Hans feared a horse would bite him - described the horse as having dark rings around his eyes and compared it to his father having glasses
He displaced castration anxiety from his father onto the horse as this would allow him to identify with his father
What is a strength of the psychodynamic explanation to gender development?
Research support - oedipus complex - Rekers & More conducted interviews with 49 boys and their families and they rated their gender identities - 75% of the boys that they classified as gender disturbed didnt have a father or father figure at home - supports the OC that boys require a father figure to identify with and internalise their gender identities - validity - GD boys were more effeminate and less extroverted than normal boys
What are some limitations of the psychodynamic explanation to gender development?
Unscientific - castration anxiety and penis envy are subconscious and cant be empirically tested/measured - research often based on ungeneralisible case studies e.g. Little Hans - lacks external validity
Alternative families - Freud’s research was based of nuclear families and doesn’t consider same sex families - Bos & Sandfort research support that found no difference in gender identity development between children raised in traditional families and those raised by same sex parents - suggests there is more to GI development - incomplete expl lacks validity
Gender bias - Freud focuses on male development (alpha bias) e.g. penis envy & castration anxiety are based upon androcentric views, girls bothered on an unconscious level that they arent like a boy and CA is boys concerned for themselves and doesn’t consider womb envy - didnt develop the EC Jung (another psychologists) as Freud claimed ‘women are a mystery to him’
What is differential reinforcement?
Boys & girls are reinforced for different reasons
What is direct reinforcement?
The individual is rewarded for doing gender appropriate behaviours e.g. boys doing sports & not crying when hurt
And are punished/ discouraged for non gender appropriate behaviours
What is indirect reinforcement?
Seeing others rewarded for gendered behaviours (especially the same sex) = copy
See others punished/discouraged for gendered behaviours = dont copy
What is identification? (SLT explanation to gender development)
Attaching yourself to someone you want to be like, they then become your role model
- same age/gender
- higher status
What is modelling? (SLT explanation to gender development)
Displaying a behaviour to be copied AND/OR copying a behaviour that has been displayed
Give two strengths of the SLT explanation for gender development?
Face validity - SLT explains why gender stereotypes have altered in the West despite our gender remaining constant - norms have shifted and they shape gendered behaviours - we are not naturally programmed to act a certain way e.g. men wearing nail polish (more gender fluidity) adds validity
Research support - Williams’ natural experiment - introducing TV for the first time in a small town in Canada known as ‘notel’ compared to a town nearby with one channel ‘unitel’ and a nearby town with multiple channels ‘multitel’ - found that in ‘notel’ gender stereotyping increased after TV was introduced (indirect reinforcement) - boosts validity
Give two limitation of the SLT explanation for gender development?
Ignores role of the unconscious Freud believes unconscious conflicts and how we resolve them can lead to identification and internalisation - SLT doesn’t account for this and therefore an incomplete explanation
Minimises the role of nature - David Reimer, botched circumcision as a baby left him without a penis and he had to get reconstructive surgery - was then raised as a girl (Brenda) yet later transitioned back to a boy once finding out - suggests gender is innate
What is gender dysphoria?
When people feel their sex & gender don’t match - a source of stress & discomfort - recognised as a psychological disorder in the DSM5
All individuals with gender dysphoria have gender reassignment surgery
True or False?
False
What are the biological explanations of gender dysphoria?
Genetic factors
Brain sex theory
What is the brain sex theory?
Zhou - found that the BST is usually 40% larger in men - post-mortems of M to F transgender brains found it was and similar to typical female brain
What is the function of the bed nucleus of stria terminalis?
Has a function in emotional responses
The bed nucleus of stria terminalis is ___________
dimorphic
What does dimorphic mean?
It is different in men and women
What did Krujiver et al find? (Brain sex theory)
neurons in the tissue of this area (BST) were within the same region as a typical female brain
What did Zhou find? (Brain sex theory)
Zhou - found that the BST is usually 40% larger in men - post-mortems of men transitioning to women’s brains found it was smaller and similar to typical female brain
What did Heylens et al find? (Genetic factors of GD)
Looked into 23 MZ pairs and found 9 concordat for gender dysphoria
Looked into 21 MZ pairs and found 0 concordat for gender dysphoria
What are the social-psychological explanations for gender dysphoria?
psychoanalytic theory
Dual pathway theory
Social constructionism
How did Ovesey and Person explain gender dysphoria? (Psychoanalytic theory)
- extreme seperation anxiety before identification (with dad) i.e. the phallic stage
- relieve anxiety by becoming ‘mother’ i.e. internalising her identity
- adopts female gender identity
What is a limitation of Ovesey & Person’s explanation of gender dysphoria?
gender bias - only explains males gender dysphoria & doesn’t take into account female gender dysphoria as their theory that the individual relieves anxiety by becoming ‘mother’ explains only male GD - limited explanation, incomplete theory - diminished validity
Research support - Stoller - interviews with gender dysphoric males found that they have overly close mother - son relationships supporting the theory that they eventually internalise her identity - increased validity
The dual pathway theory is a __________ explanation developed by……. ?
cognitive
Liben & Bigler
What is the 1st pathway in dual pathway theory?
most children go down 1 pathway where gender schema determines our gender behaviour and ultimately gender identity
What is the 2nd pathway in dual pathway theory?
Child’s own interests and behaviours influence their schema i.e. boys that enjoy dolls & dress up may come to see this as normal for boys - leading to a non sex typed schema
What does the 2nd pathway theory mostly lead to?
mostly leads to androgyny but in small number of cases may lead to GID
The social constructionism explanation states gender is a _________ construct
social
According to the social constructionism explanation gender dysphoria is not based on __________ differences but arises when….
biological
According to the social constructionism explanation gender dysphoria is not based on __________ differences but arises when….
biological
but arises when there is confusion from being forced to ‘pick a side’ and act accordingly
What did McClintock find in the Sambia tribe?
McClintock - genetic conditions in the Sambia tribe
Found that before this culture came into contact with others it accepted 3 gender states: male, female & female then male - But since contact with other cultures this last category is now judged as a form of GID
What is a strength of research into GID?
practical application - the more we know the more we can help those with GID i.e. through developing biological or psychological therapies to help the individual deal with their transition
What are some limitations of research into GID?
cause and effect (bio) - difficult to establish if changes in the brain structure cause gender dysphoria or does gender dysphoria cause changes in brain structures - Zhou conducted his study post mortem and Krujiver after hormone therapy - diminishes validity
Socially sensitive - some reject the labelling of gender dysphoria as a disorder and believe it leads to labelling and stigmatisation of those with it as sick or ill rather than accepting their transition - diagnosis negatively impacts the individual
Psychoanalytic is limited - only explains male gender dysphoria and doesn’t account for female to male transition - incomplete theory
Biological is reductionist - it reduces a complex disorder to a single gene or a brain region rather than appreciating the psychological aspects involved in transitioning - limited explanation - incomplete theory
What did Mead study? (Gender - culture)
Mead studied 3 different tribes in Papa New Guinea examining their gender patterns and compared it to western notions of gender
What were the names of the three tribes Mead studied?
Arapesh
Mundugumor
Tchambuli
What did Mead discover about the Arapesh?
The whole tribe were gentle and responsive - no distinction between men & women - in terms of western labels all ‘feminine’
What did Mead discover about the Mundugumor?
The whole tribe were hostile and aggressive as a whole - in terms of western labels all were ‘masculine’
What did Mead discover about the Tchambuli?
Inverse of western notions - the men were passive and the women were dominant
Buss looked at __ different countries spanning all __ continents
37
7
What was Buss studying?
mate preferences across varying cultures
What did Buss find was consistent for men in mate preferences across cultures?
Men across cultures looked for youth and beauty
What did Buss find was consistent for women in mate preferences across cultures?
Women across cultures looked for wealth & resources
What do the culture similarities in mate preference found by Buss suggest?
These similarities suggest mate preferences stem from evolution and are adaptive/innate
What did Munroe & Munroe find?
They found that most societies have a traditional gendered division of labour
Men = breadwinners
Women = took on the caregiver role
What did Munroe & Munroe study?
gender roles across cultures
What are two strengths of the idea that gender is a cultural construct and different across cultures?
research support - Hofstede - found womens roles change depending on where they are i.e. in industrial societies women take on a breadwinning role but in traditional societies women have domestic roles - culturally specific not universal behaviours
Temporal validity - Buss, Munroe & Munroe - lack historical validity as society has progressed since the 80’s meaning mate preferences and roles have likely changed - and so the idea that gender is consistent across cultures is diminished
What is a limitation of the idea that gender is a cultural construct and different across cultures?
Cultural bias/methodological issue - Mead assessed behaviours through a western lens - she compared the tribe to western values which she considered the norm and the tribes anomalous - ethnocentric - researcher bias - diminishes validity
What is a limitation of research into cultural similarities?
Temporal validity - Buss, Munroe & Munroe - lack historical validity as society has progressed since the 80’s meaning mate preferences and roles have likely changed
The media provides _____ ________
role models
What did Furnham & Farragher look into? (Gender & media)
They looked into the presentation of gender roles in the media via a cross cultural analysis of adverts (indirect learning)
What did Furnham & Farragher find?
They found the media portray rigid gender stereotypes
Men = dominant, confident, breadwinners
Women = dependent, caring, domestic
The media provides information on what behaviours are ________ appropriate
gender
Increased viewing of _____ leads to increased self-_________
media
Efficacy
What are some strengths of research into the media’s influence on gender?
research support - a study in India found that girls who watched ‘adhafull’ saw themselves as more capable of working outside of domestic roles - identified the independent protagonist as a role model - the media can also discourage gender stereotypes - shows ability to influence - increases validity
Practical application - the media specifically children’s media have begun to display female protagonists and stories not centred around love e.g. Moana - challenges gender stereotypes
Cultivation theory - the more time we spend in the virtual world the more it impacts our real world - Bond & Dragos found a positive correlation between time spent watching jersey shore & liberal attitudes towards casual sex - shows impact of the media
What is a limitation of research into the media’s influence on gender?
underestimates nature - research into media influence typically doesn’t consider that some gender behaviours could be innate & based on our biological sex e.g. hormones & chromosomes could impact behaviours such as aggression
What is biological maturation?
(Cognitive explanation)
BM means our knowledge of the world (including our knowledge of gender) gets more sophisticated as we age
What does Kohlberg’s theory of gender development argue?
Kohlberg argues that gender development runs parallel to intellectual development
What is Kohlberg’s first stage of gender development?
gender identity (2-3)
The child can identify their own and others genders yet don’t realise it is a fixed concept
What is Kohlberg’s second stage of gender development?
gender stability (4-5)
The child realises gender is a fixed concept over time yet is confused by non traditional roles and appearances
What is Kohlberg’s third stage of gender development?
gender constancy (6-7)
The child is no longer confused by non traditional roles and appearances and begins to look for a gendered role model they can identify with and imitate
What is a strength of Kohlberg’s theory?
research support - Slaby & Frey - showed children with varying ages a split screen image of a man & a woman doing the same task - they found that children in stage 3 spent longer watching the same sex model -meaning younger children watched them less as they weren’t looking for a same sex role model
What are some limitations of Kohlberg’s theory?
counter evidence - Bandura found that children as young as 4 would report feeling good about gender appropriate toys and bad about the opposite - invalidates stage 2 as they shouldn’t be able to understand stereotypes/gendered toys - K’s stages are too rigid - diminishes validity
Methodological issues - Kohlberg based his theory on interviews with children - the children could have a really complex understanding of gender yet dont have the verbal ability to express that knowledge - lacks internal validity
Underestimates nurture - Kohlberg doesn’t account for the fact that a child’s environment and upbringing can affect their gender development - incomplete explanation
What is gender schema?
packages of information about gender built through learning and experience
According to Martin & Halverson’s GS theory when do children begin searching for gender information?
2-3yrs of age
Can be acquired from the media, parents etc which leads to schema directed behaviour
According to Martin & Halverson’s GS theory what age is your gender schema stereotyped by?
children start looking for gender information at 2-3 AND by 4-5 this information is fixed & stereotyped (earlier than K’s theory)
What is an ingroup? (Martin & Halverson)
Comprised of own gender
What is an outgroup? (Martin & Halverson)
Comprised of opposite gender
Young children have a better understanding of their _________ than their ___________
Ingroup
Outgroup
When do children begin to search for information about their outgroup?
at 8 years old
What are some strengths of Martin & Halverson’s gender schema theory?
Research support - Bandura reports children as young as 4 identifying ‘gender appropriate toys’ and feeling good about them
Research support x2 - Martin & Halverson showed children under 6 photos with gendered behaviour e.g. a man/woman sweeping - they found that they were better at remembering gender consistent photos e.g. the women cleaning - their schema changed gender inconsistent photos e.g. a man cleaning - shows schema is stereotyped before 6
Interactionist - more interactionist than Kohlberg as they consider the role of biological maturation and the environment e.g. media & role models
What are some limitations of Martin & Halverson’s gender schema theory?
ignores unconscious - neither K or M&H consider the role of the unconscious in gender development (identification and internalisation) - incomplete explanation
