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Aggression Flashcards

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1
Q

What is ethology?

A

The study of animal behaviour in a natural setting

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2
Q

Who founded ethology?

A

Lorenz

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3
Q

Lorenz argues _____ species aggression is ____________

A

intra
Adaptive i.e. we have evolved with it because it is necessary for our survival

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4
Q

What were Lorenz’s theories?

A

Hierarchy
Territory

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5
Q

Aggression is useful as it creates & maintains _____________ hierarchies

A

dominance

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6
Q

What is the benefit for those at the top of the dominance hierarchy?

A

Those at the top of the hierarchy have greater access to mates & resources

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7
Q

Aggression is beneficial in spreading a species’ territory because…..

A

losers of aggression are rarely killed but are forced in to new territory = more resources and the species grows

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8
Q

What is a ritual?

A

a series of behaviours carried out in a set order

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9
Q

Lorenz noted that most intra-species aggression didn’t lead to much physical damage but consisted mostly of…….

A

ritualistic displays of aggression e.g. dogs bare their teeth

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10
Q

What do ritualistic displays of aggression often end in?

A

Appeasement displays of surrender

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11
Q

Why is ritualistic aggression that doesn’t end in death adaptive?

A

It leads to the continuation of the species (1) not killing each other (2) new territory being found

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12
Q

What are innate releasing mechanisms?

A

Internal, physiological processes that detect stimuli and release/ trigger behaviour sequences (FAP’s)

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13
Q

What are the 6 features of FAP’s?

A
  • stereotyped (unchanging)
  • universal (same in all members of a species)
  • ballistic (once triggered completion is inevitable)
  • single purpose (situation specific)
  • in response to a specific sign/ stimulus
  • unaffected by learning (based on innate instinct)
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14
Q

What was Tinbergen’s procedure?

A

Tinbergen took male sticklebacks in mating season and presented them with plastic models of various shapes with red underbelly’s (the red is the specific sign stimulus that triggers the IRM) -

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15
Q

What did Tinbergen find?

A

He found when presenting the stickleback’s with the red bellied models the stickleback responded with the same aggressive behaviour every time (FAP’s) - when a realistic model without a red underbelly was shown no FAP was produced

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16
Q

What happens to male sticklebacks during mating season?

A

Male sticklebacks create nests, guard eggs, become territorial and develop red underbellies

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17
Q

What is a strength of the ethological explanation of aggression?

A

Genetic research support - studies into human aggression support the ethological approach e.g. Rhee & Waldman’s adoption studies

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18
Q

What are three limitations of the ethological explanation?

A

cultural differences - type of aggression varies by culture - reactive homicides are more common in southern American states than northern because southern states have more of a culture of honour - not innate learned by culture - incomplete

Lorenz didn’t account for non ritualistic aggression - Jane Goodall noticed that in a pack of chimps a smaller group broke away which initiated a 4yr war and the bigger group killed the smaller group - not always beneficial

FAP’s as reductionist (too simplistic) - unlikely all members of a species respond the same way to a specific stimulus - research has found otherwise and has also suggested with learning FAP’s can be changed - can’t be applied to human aggression as animals more so move in packs

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19
Q

Who is sexual jealousy more common in?

A

More common in men = motivation for aggression

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20
Q

Why is aggression adaptive for men?

A

It can prevent women from infidelity & reduce their risk of cuckoldry

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21
Q

What two fears fuel sexual jealousy?

A
  • Paternity uncertainty (men can never be 100% sure the child is theirs)
  • Cuckoldry (infidelity)
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22
Q

Who defined mate retention strategies?

A

Wilson & Daly

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23
Q

What are the two mate retention strategies proposed by Wilson & Daly?

A
  • Direct guarding
  • Negative inducements
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24
Q

What is direct guarding?

A

Male vigilance over their partners behaviours e.g. checking their phones, consistently checking their whereabouts etc

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25
Q

What are negative inducements?

A

threats of consequences for infidelity or abandonment e.g. guilt tripping (threatening self harm)

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26
Q

What can mate retention strategies act as a precursor for?

A

physical violence (domestic)

Wilson asked women about their partners mate retention strategies - found a link between those who reported strategies and experience of domestic violence

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27
Q

What is the definition of bullying?

A

A more powerful person uses aggression deliberately and repeatedly against a weaker person

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28
Q

How is bullying adaptive for men?

A

Bullies tend to be at the top of dominance hierarchies = boosted attractiveness & so more access to mates and resources

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29
Q

Why is a man being at the top of the dominance hierarchy attractive to women?

A

An attractive quality to women as it means safety and resources for offspring

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30
Q

How can bullying be adaptive for women?

A

Bullying in relationships secures fidelity and resources for offspring

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31
Q

Why is physical aggression maladaptive for women?

A

It puts the survival of them & their offspring at risk

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32
Q

What are strengths of the evolutionary explanation of aggression?

A

Gender differences - evolutionary explanations explains why there are differences in male & female aggression as physical aggression is maladaptive for women as it risks her and her offspring’s survival - boosts validity

Real world application - sexual jealousy - mate retention strategies are reliable precursors of domestic violence - improving knowledge of these could reduce domestic violence - effective/necessary

Real world application - bullying - if we know that children bully for status we can impose harsher sanctions and greater rewards for pro social behaviours - rather than associating aggression with rewards the children will begin to associate it with a loss of status/punishment & are discouraged from engaging in future aggression - effective

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33
Q

What are limitations of the evolutionary explanation of aggression?

A

Cultural differences - levels of aggression differ culturally - if aggression is adaptive (as this expl argues) the features should be universal and consistent - !Kungsan tribe in Botswana where aggression is frowned upon and discouraged from a young age i.e. displays of aggression decrease & diminish status - this suggests aggression is learned not innate - incomplete explanation - lowers validity

Biological determinism - if we blame domestic violence on evolution we are not accounting for choice or free will as well as learning - not conducive with our legal system as it diminishes responsibility of the aggressor providing them an excuse for their behaviour

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34
Q

What is direct reinforcement?

A

When we behave aggressively and it is successful

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35
Q

What is indirect reinforcement?

A

When we see others behave aggressively and it is successful

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36
Q

What is vicarious punishment?

A

When we see others behave aggressively and it is unsuccessful

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37
Q

What is self efficacy?

A

Our confidence that our aggression will be successful

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38
Q

Bandura studied _________ learning of aggression in his _____ doll studies

A

indirect
Bobo

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39
Q

Outline Bandura’s Bobo doll study into modelling (1961)

A

3x groups of 24 kids
G1) model displays aggressive behaviour with BD
G2) model displays non aggressive behaviour with BD
G3) no model = control group

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40
Q

What group was most aggressive in Bandura’s bobo doll study? (Modelling)

A

G1) model displays aggressive behaviours with BD - most aggressive group

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41
Q

Outline Bandura’s Bobo doll study into vicarious reinforcement (1963)

A

3x groups of 24 kids
G1) aggressive displays with BD and rewarded
G2) aggressive displays with BD and punished
G3) aggressive adult model (control)

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42
Q

What group was most aggressive in Bandura’s bobo doll study? (Vicarious reinforcement)

A

G1) aggressive displays with BD and rewarded = most aggressive to BD

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43
Q

What are two strengths of Bandura’s bobo doll studies into aggression?

A

Research support - Poulin & Bolivian - aggressive boys befriend each other and mutually reinforce each others proactive (planned) aggression - leads to increased self efficacy as a result of continued direct reinforcement - increases validity of SLT explanation for aggression

Practical application - limiting children’s access to aggressive media e.g. the watershed to decrease vicarious reinforcement and in turn aggression levels in children - useful in the real world

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44
Q

What are two limitations of Bandura’s bobo doll study into aggression?

A

Counter evidence to Poulin & Boivin - the idea that aggressive boys befriend each other and mutually reinforce each others proactive aggression can’t be applied to/isn’t true for reactive aggression - limited scope of explanation for the most common type of aggression - diminishes validity of social psychological explanation for aggression

Underestimates nature - in Bandura’s studies boys overall used more physical aggression than girls in all conditions - suggests boys have an innate biological drive to behave aggressively which the study doesn’t consider - incomplete theory - diminishes validity of findings

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45
Q

Who proposed the frustration aggression hypothesis?

A

Dollard

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46
Q

What is the frustration aggression hypothesis?

A

The idea that frustration always leads to aggression is always the result of frustration

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47
Q

The frustration aggression hypothesis states frustration is a ____________ drive

A

Biological

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48
Q

According to the frustration aggression hypothesis how do we fix/solve frustration ?

A

We fix it by being aggressive

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49
Q

According to the frustration aggression hypothesis the act of using aggression to solve frustration is….

A

cathartic

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50
Q

Define frustration

A

When our access to a goal is blocked

51
Q

Dollard noted that aggression is not always directed towards the source what were the three reasons he gave for this?

A
  • the source is unavailable e.g. dead, far away etc
  • fear of the source i.e. the source is superior (too powerful)
  • the source is abstract i.e. intangible

these are all examples of displacement

52
Q

Who proposed the weapon effect?

A

Berkowitz

53
Q

What is the weapon effect?

A

Frustration creates a readiness for aggression BUT we need aggressive cues in our environment to release e.g. weapons

54
Q

Outline Berkowitz’s study regarding the weapon effect and his findings

A
  • Ppts were shocked by a confederate = frustration
  • Roles were then reversed and the ppts could shock the confederates
  • There were two conditions C1) weapons present C2) no weapons present
  • He found that more shocks were given with the presence of weapons (guns) in the room as they act as aggressive cues
55
Q

Give a strength of the frustration aggression hypothesis

A

Research support - Geen: ppts were frustrated in one of 3 conditions
1) they were given an impossible puzzle
2) a confederate kept interfering whilst they were dong the puzzle
3) confederates kept insulting them for failing to do it
when give the opportunity to shock the confederate afterward it was found that those in C3 gave the most severe shocks and those in C1 gave the least severe - illustrating a positive correlation between frustration and aggression

56
Q

What are two limitations of the frustration aggression hypothesis?

A

The role of catharsis - Bushman criticises the role of catharsis as it has been found that those who vented frustration by punching a punching bag became more aggressive - essentially not releasing aggression is more effective at reducing frustration than aggression

Reductionist - it is too simplistic to assume frustration is always the root of aggressive acts/ will always cause aggression when there are other responses e.g. increased determination, crying etc - incomplete theory - diminishes validity

57
Q

Give a strength of the weapons effect

A

Practical application - the weapons effect can be used for greater gun control in open carry states (unconcealed weapons) and so it is useful and effective in the real world

58
Q

Who proposed de-individuation

A

Le Bon

59
Q

What is de-individuation and why was it proposed?

A
  • What = a psychological state in which we lose our personal identity
  • Why = to explain why aggression often takes place in crowds
60
Q

What are features of a de-individuated state?

A
  • Lose personal identity
  • Disregard norms/laws
  • Lack responsibility/guilt
61
Q

When we are in a de-individuated state we are more likely to display ___________ behaviour

A

aggressive

62
Q

What two states did Zimbardo distinguish between?

A

individuated & de-individuated

63
Q

According to Zimbardo how do we behave in an individuated state?

A
  • Have a sense of self
  • Act rationally/in accordance with social norms
  • Identifiable (to people) i.e. no masks/anonymity
64
Q

According to Zimbardo what conditions create de-individuation?

A
  • Night-time
  • Uniform
  • Intoxication
  • Masks/disguises
  • Crowds
    COMMONE FEATURE = ANONYMITY
65
Q

According to Zimbardo how do we behave in a de-individuated state?

A
  • Impulsive
  • Irrational
  • Lack of self awareness
66
Q

Some have argued that the loss of self awareness stemming from ____________ is what makes us aggressive rather than _____________

A

Anonymity

67
Q

What are the two types of self awareness?

A

private & public

68
Q

What is private self awareness?

A

how we feel about ourselves

69
Q

What is public self awareness?

A

how we think others feel about us i.e. are we being watched

70
Q

What happens to public awareness in crowds and how does this lead to aggression?

A

Our public awareness is distorted in crowds as we feel less judged and shielded by the crowds - which makes us more likely to behave aggressively

71
Q

What happens to private awareness in crowds and how does this lead to aggression?

A

Private awareness is reduced in crowds as we are focusing more on the external situation rather than ourselves - this reduces self criticism which leads to a boost in self confidence and makes us more likely to behave aggressively

72
Q

Outline Dodd’s procedure for his study researching de-individuation

A

Asked 229 psych students ‘if you could do anything humanly possible with no chance of detection or punishment, what would you do?’ (complete de-individuation)
independent raters categorised the responses without knowing the aim

73
Q

What were Dodd’s findings? (de-individuation)

A

He found that:
1- 36% of responses were anti social
2 - 26% of responses were actual crimes
3 - 9% of responses were pro-social

74
Q

What are two strengths of de-individuation?

A

Research support - Douglas & McGarty - found that online trolling & aggressive messages were more common by users who hid their identity (de-individuated) e.g. no pfp, ambiguous username etc - boosts the validity of Bon’s theory of de-individuation as the users are unidentifiable and this anonymity allows their aggressive behaviour

Real world application - there are many examples of crowds and protests turning violent and aggressive - research into suicide jumpers has found that crowds gather at the bottom to encourage them - de-individuation encourages aggression - has face validity as an explanation

75
Q

What are three limitations of de-individuation?

A

Counter evidence - ‘Deviance in the dark’ Gergen et al - 8 strangers were put in a pitch black room for an hour and were told they wouldn’t meet each other afterwards unless they chose to disclose their identities - completely de-individuated - instead of behaving aggressively the ppts became intimate e.g. kissing - shows de-individuation doesn’t always lead to aggression

Pro social de-individuation - deindividuated crowds don’t always turn anti social as we assume the identity of the crowd which can be pro social - this explanation is incomplete as it doesn’t consider that deindividuation doesn’t always lead to aggression

Underestimates nature - doesn’t consider the role of genetics & hormones in aggression e.g. the MAOA gene and it’s relevance - incomplete theory/limited scope diminishes validity

76
Q

Who proposed the importation model ?

A

Irwin & Cressey

77
Q

What is the importation model?

A

Prisoners import their dispositions (including aggression) into the prisons with them

78
Q

What is the benefit for prisoners of importing their aggressive behaviour into the prison?

A

Higher in the dominance hierarch within the prison - more power & status - greater access to resources e.g. money, food

79
Q

What were the two conditions in DeLisi’s study? (prisons & institutions - dispositional expl)

A

1) negative backgrounds (childhood trauma abuse, anger & violence)
2) control (did not have negative features in their backgrounds yet still committed crimes)

80
Q

What were DeLisi findings? (prisons & institutions - dispositional expl)

A

The ‘negative background’ inmates were more likely to engage in suicidal activity, sexual misconduct & acts of physical aggression

the difference between the CG and ‘NG’ inmates shows that prisons are aggressive due to inmates disposition as they were all in the same environment but the ‘NB’ inmates were more aggressive

81
Q

Give a strength of the dispositional explanation for aggression?

A

Research support - Camp & Gaes - randomly allocated prisoners with similar dispositions to either a low security or high security prison - after two years there was no difference in the amount of aggressive incidents the inmates had committed - not a prisoner’s situation but their disposition - increases validity

82
Q

Give two limitations of the dispositional explanation for aggression?

A

Counter evidence - dispositional explanations doesn’t include prison level factors - an explanation called the ACM includes factors that lead to aggression: weak leadership, culture of unofficial rules e.g. corruption, staff that keeps a distance, lack of education/training opportunities - aggression in prisons is due to the negative environment in the prison - DE = incomplete - decreases validity of explanation

Deterministic - aggression in prisons will not always be due to the inmates disposition - incomplete explanation as there may be other factors e.g. environment

83
Q

Who proposed the deprivation model?

A

Clemmer

84
Q

What is the deprivation model?

A

Clemmer argues that harsh prison conditions that deprive inmates are stressful/psychologically challenging and incite aggression & competition

85
Q

Give examples of things that aren’t accessible in prison and so can lead to aggression/competition?

A

heterosexual intimacy
freedom
resources

86
Q

How many US prisons did Steiner look at? (prisons/institutions - situational expl)

A

512

87
Q

What prison level factors did Steiner find to be predictors of aggression?

A
  • more female staff (increased sexual jealousy)
  • overcrowding (frustration/competition)
  • inmates in protective custody (even amongst criminals there are lines e.g. child offenders & informants
88
Q

What is a strength of the situational explanation?

A

Research support - Cunningham - analysed 35 inmate homicides in Texas prisons he found that a common motivator was deprivation i.e. arguments over possessions, drugs, cellmates crossing boundaries etc - supports the SE as a hostile prison atmosphere incites aggression - increases validity

89
Q

What are two limitations of the situational explanation?

A

Counter evidence - Hensley looked at two Mississippi prisons that allowed conjugal visits and found there was no decrease in aggression associated with the visit which suggests that aggression is due to an individual’s disposition instead of their environment as the inmate was not depraved of heterosexual intimacy - decreases validity of SE

Underestimates nature - SE doesn’t aggression in prisons may not be entirely due to the inmates situation - for example prisoners may have higher testosterone levels or the MAOA-L gene which is a lower functioning variant of the MAOA gene that is responsible for serotonin breakdown - both associated with high aggression levels

90
Q

Outline Roberston’s research into the effect of TV/film on aggression

A

1000+ New Zealanders
longitudinal study - up to 26yrs
aggression was operationalised as amount of criminal convictions relating to violence

91
Q

What were Robertson’s findings?

A

She found that the more TV these people watched over time the more aggressive they were (any TV not just violent content)

92
Q

Bandura replicated his bobo doll research but on ______ and with ___________ models

A

film
cartoon

93
Q

Outline the procedure for Bandura’s bobo doll study on the effect of media on aggression

A

G1) children saw a filmed model beating up a cartoon Bobo doll
G2) children saw a filmed model that didn’t behave physically aggressive towards the Bobo doll
G3) control group

94
Q

What were Bandura’s findings in his Bobo doll study? (media)

A

He found that the children imitated the behaviour seen in the film/cartoon
G1 most aggressive as they saw the filmed model being aggressive - the SLT processes also operate on media

95
Q

Outline the procedure for Bartholow & Anderson’s study (computer games)

A
  • ppts played either a violent or a non violent game for 10 mins
  • they then carried out a white noise blast task (way of behaving aggressively) to measure their aggression
  • ppts delivered blasts of noise to non existent opponents at chosen volumes
96
Q

What were Bartholow & Anderson’s findings?

A
  • they found that those who played the violent game blasted the white noise louder
97
Q

Give three strengths of research into the influence of computer games into aggression

A

Practical application = age restrictions on video games e.g. Grand Theft Auto - this censorship of violence exposed to children aims to reduce/discourage aggression - useful/effective

scientific - Bartholow & Anderson’s study is a lab experiment with a set IV which was the level of violence of the two games and two different conditions - increases scientific credibility

Meta analysis supports conclusions of B&A - Anderson found from a meta analysis of 136 studies that exposure to violent games was associated with high levels of aggression - supports their findings - increased validity

98
Q

Give a strength of research into media influence on aggression

A

Theoretical support from SLT - SLT proposes that we learn through role models & imitation - so it is plausible we learn aggression through media role models - high face validity

99
Q

Give a limitation of research into the effect of computer games on aggression

A

Gender differences - the effect of computer games on aggression was bigger in B&A’s study on men than women - this suggests that men are biologically more aggressive than women due to biological factors e.g. higher testosterone levels - limits applicability of findings

100
Q

Give three limitations of research into media influences on aggression

A

Defining aggression - aggression is operationalised differently between studies e.g. B&A, Robertson etc making it harder to relate the studies - limits application of all findings as they have different definitions of aggression yet fall under the same explanation

Correlation v causation - a lot of media research isn’t correlational as a relationship doesn’t establish causation e.g. Robertson’s study where this a possible third variable problem as increased viewing is also associated with decreased social interaction & educational achievement i.e. increased aggression may down to this - decreases validity of findings

External validity - in real life acts of aggression are different e.g. physical aggression and have real life consequences whereas in a study there is no explicit/severe consequence and aggression levels increase due to a sense of security - can’t be reliably generalised

101
Q

What is desensitisation?

A

The more often we view/consume violent aggressive media the less psychological & physiological response we have e.g. increased heart rate, sweat, empathy

102
Q

Explain how desensitisation affects aggression?

A

The less we are affected by aggressive media physiologically & psychologically the more likely we are to participate in aggressive acts as it affects us less

103
Q

What is disinhibition?

A

When we view violent & aggressive media where aggression is rewarded and damage is minimised our norms are changed (loosens our disinhibitions)

104
Q

Explain how disinhibition affects aggression?

A

Viewing violent & aggressive media where it is reward and damage is minimised our norms change which loosens our inhibitions as our social norms tell us aggression is wrong - this increases aggression

105
Q

What is cognitive priming?

A

When we view violent or aggressive media we have a script of how the situation plays out

106
Q

Explain how cognitive priming affects aggression

A

When we view violent or aggressive media we then have a script of how the situation plays out - this means we are likely to behave in an aggressive way when in a similar situation

107
Q

Outline Fisher & Greitmeyer study researching cognitive priming and what they found

A
  • They had ppts listen to lyrics, two conditions , IV = gender of participants
  • C1) men listening to women hating songs
  • C2) women listening to men hating songs

When asking the ppts after about the opposite sex both genders reported negative views

108
Q

What are three strengths of media explanations of aggression?

A

Research support - Crahe measured skin conductance of ppts whilst they viewed violent media - he found those who were frequent viewers of violent media sweat less - physically desensitised - increases validity

Practical application - the 9pm watershed used to filter violent media exposed to children - boosts validity

Cartoon violence - outlines aggression as normal and minimises damages which can promote/allow disinhibition - explaining aggression in children

109
Q

What are two limitations of media explanations of aggression?

A

Alternative explanations - FAH which says that viewing violent media can be “cathartic” as it removes your frustration vicariously - negates the explanation which diminishes the validity of it

Underestimates nature - media explanations dont account for the notion that aggression may be an innate biological drive with evolutionary benefit or due to hormones e.g. high testosterone levels associated with aggression - incomplete explanation

110
Q

What are the two types of aggression?

A
  • Proactive (cold blooded)
  • Reactive (hot blooded)
111
Q

Which type of aggression is most common?

A

Reactive

112
Q

What dies the genetic approach to explaining aggression believe?

A
  • Claims aggression has a biological basis and is an ‘innate’ evolutionary drive
113
Q

What did Coccaro measure? (genetic explanation)

A
  • Coccaro measured concordance rates amongst MZ & DZ twins
114
Q

What were Coccaro’s findings? (genetic explanation)

A
  • concordance rates for physical assault: MZ = 50% DZ twins = 19%
  • concordance rates for verbal assault: MZ = 28% DZ = 7%
  • CR were higher for physical assault for both twins but the CR for MZ twins were higher for both than that for DZ twins
115
Q

Adoption studies successfully separate ___________ from _____________

A

nature
nurture

116
Q

What does it mean if there are similarities in aggression between an adopted child and their biological parents?

A

If there are similarities between an adopted child and their biological parents in aggression it suggests there are genetic influences operating

117
Q

What does it mean if there are similarities in aggression between an adopted child and their adopted parents?

A

if there are similarities in aggression between an adopted child and their adopted parents it suggests there are environmental influences operating

118
Q

Rhee & Waldman’s meta analysis of aggression in adoption studies found that genetic influence accounted for ___% of the variance in aggression

A

41

119
Q

What does the MAO-A gene produce?

A

The MAO-A enzyme

120
Q

What is the job of the MAO-A enzyme?

A

The job of this enzyme is to break down serotonin

121
Q

What is the low activity variant of the MAO-A gene called?

A

The MAOA-L variant (genes come in different variants)

122
Q

Why is the MAOA-L variant linked to high levels of aggression?

A
  • The MAOA-L variant produces a low activity MAO-A enzyme which means that serotonin isn’t being broken down effectively which leads to high aggression levels (serotonin provides a soothing/calking effect)
123
Q

What is a strength of the genetic explanation for aggression?

A

Case study support - Bruner et al studied 28 men from a large dutch family who were repeatedly involved in criminally aggressive acts e.g. rape - he found these men had abnormally low levels of the MAO-A enzyme and the MAOA-L variant - this suggests that genetics cause aggression as the link between the MAOA-L variant and aggression can be found in real life

124
Q

What are some limitations of the genetic explanation for aggression?

A

Legal system - This explanation implies individuals don’t have control over their own actions as aggression is ‘innate’ - this isn’t conducive with our legal system which sees individuals as responsible for their own actions e.g. Stephen Mobley attempted to justify homicide by blaming his behaviour on biological influences - still convicted - showing this explanation isn’t valid within the justice system - therefore this explanation has limited applicability reducing it’s validity

Counter evidence - shows a link between genes and the environment in producing aggression - research into the MAO-A gene has found the presence of the MAOA - L variant only leads to aggression in adults if they have experienced trauma in childhood - incomplete explanation - interactionist approach more suitable - decreases validity

Other genes - the genetic explanation doesn’t consider the role of other genes in impacting aggression e.g. Stuart et al found that the serotonin transporter gene was linked to intimate partner violence - multiple genes involved in aggression alongside MAOA-L variant - incomplete/too simplistic - decreases validity

Psychology yr13 (6 decks)

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