GE 100 Exam Two (Chapters 12-18) Flashcards
aerosols
tiny solid particles or liquid droplets that remain suspended in the atmosphere for a long time
alien species
species that do not naturally occur within an area that have usually arrived in the area as a result of human intervention (whether deliberate or accidental)
allopatric speciation
evolution of a new species that occurs when a population becomes geographically isolated from its parent population and accumulates genetic or behavioral changes that differentiate it from the original population
anthropocentric
the ethical position that the value of nonhuman species is determined by their value to people
attribution
the process of establishing a cause and effect relationship between human activity and an observed change in climate
background extinction
the ongoing extinction of individual species due to environmental or ecological factors such as climate change, disease, loss of habitat, or competitive disadvantage in relation to other species; occurs at a fairly steady rate over geological time and is the result of normal evolutionary processes, with only a limited number of species in an ecosystem being affected at any one time
biocentric
the ethical position that nonhuman species have value in and of themselves and have the right to exist independent of their usefulness to humans
biodiversity
the biological variation found in a defined spatial area: can refer to variation at the level of genome, phenotype, species, community, or ecosystem
biodiversity hot spot
an area with an especially large number of species
black market
a market in which goods or services are sold illegally
corruption
unlawful use of public office for private gain
diffuse chemical coevolution
natural selection favoring individuals that accumulate compounds effective against a wide variety of enemies
dispersal
the distance a species can travel to find new environments
ecosystem diversity
variation between and within ecosystems with regard to species and function
edge effects
habitat conditions created at or near the more or less well-defined boundary between ecosystems
edges
boundaries between well-defined ecosystems
endangered species
a species that is in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range
endemic
species that are restricted to a certain geographic region and are thought to have originated there
enemy release hypothesis
the notion that the population of an alien species can grow rapidly (escape) if the number of pathogens it leaves behind in its native range exceeds the new pathogens it accumulates in its naturalized range
ethnobotany
the study of how different groups of people, including indigenous cultures, use plants and animals
ex situ
maintaining a species away from its natural habitat
extinction
the loss of living representatives of a given species either globally or locally
extremophiles
organisms that live in extreme environments
fragmentation
breakup of a continuous habitat, ecosystem, or land use type into smaller areas
gap species
species whose range falls outside protected areas
genetic diversity
information in the DNA of plants, animals, and microorganisms
governance
act of governing and exercising authority
habitat conversion
changes in the quality of land use or land cover associated with human activity
immigration
movement of a species into an area previously uninhabited by that species
in situ
efforts to preserve species in functioning ecosystems
insurance
the process of spreading the potential effects of risk
invasive
species that displace indigenous or spread into habitats where they were not previously common
keystone species
species whose presence and numbers control the integrity of a community or ecosystem and allow that system to persist within its natural range of environmental conditions
mass extinctions
periods when the extinction rate is much greater than the background extinction rate
native range
areas where a species evolved or inhabits for a long period
naturalized range
an area that was previously uninhabited by a species
nongovernmental organizations
private organizations that pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the interests of the poor, protect the environment, provide basic social services, or undertake community development
passenger species
species whose loss would have little effect on ecosystem function
poaching
illegal killing or collecting of plants and animals
pollinators
animals that place pollen on the stigma of plants
predator control
efforts to reduce the populations of species that compete with humans for crops or game
random drift
accumulation of changes in the gene pool due to stochastic events
redundant species
species whose loss has little effect on ecosystem function
speciation
evolution of a new species
species diversity
the total number of living species
species evenness
the distribution of individuals among species
species richness
the number of species in an area
sympatric speciation
the process of forming a new species in which individual traits isolate a subpopulation from the parent population and allows the populations to evolve separately
threatened species
species that are likely to become endangered in the foreseeable future throughout all or a significant portion of their ranges
clean development mechanism
a UN policy that allows a nation to earn credit for reducing emissions in another nation
climate
the average weather conditions (temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall) in a given region over a long period of time
climate change
a statistically significant variation in either the average state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period, typically decades or longer
climate envelope
conditions under which populations of a species can persist in the face of competitors and natural enemies
detection
the process of determining whether climate is changing
greenhouse effect
the atmosphere’s ability to absorb reradiated energy with longer wavelengths and convert it to heat
greenhouse gases
gases that absorb reradiated energy with longer wavelengths and convert it to heat
heat balance
the difference between the amoun of energy that enters the atmosphere and the amount of energy that leaves the atmosphere
land use change
the practice of replacing natural ecosystems with others that meet human needs and wants
radiative forcing
the total amount of energy (watts) that is absorbed by the gases that lie above an area of Earth’s surface, from ground level to the top of the atmosphere
reflect
the process whereby a surface turns back a portion of the radiation that strikes it
residence time
the time that an atom spends in a storage pool
scatter
to disperse radiation in different directions
temperature sensitivity
the long-term change in temperature given a doubling in atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide or radiative forcing
water efficiency
the amount of water transpired per unit of new biomass produced
weather
atmospheric conditions at a particular place and point in time and how they change from day to day
dobson unit
the unit used to measure the concentration of ozone in a column of the atmosphere
lapse rate
change in temperature with altitude
marginal ice zone
area along the Antarctic coast where melting ice forms a shallow layer of relatively fresh water on top of salt water that has abundant supplies of light and nutrients
mesosphere
the layer of the atmosphere that extends from about 50 to 100 km above the surface, in which temperature declines with altitude
molecular nitrogen
molecules of two atoms that make up about 78% of the atmosphere
molecular oxygen
molecules of two atoms that make up about 21% of the atmosphere
mutation
breaks and rearrangements of DNA molecules
ozone
a molecule that consists of three oxygen atoms and is found largely in the stratosphere, where it absorbs a significant fraction of incoming UV-B radiation
ozone depletion potential
the ability of a chemical to destroy ozone
photodissociation
the process by which solar energy splits a molecule
polar stratospheric clouds
clouds that consist of very small droplets of water and nitric acid that are formed at very cold temperatures
polar vortex
a surface wind that blows in a circular pattern around the pole during the winter
stratosphere
a layer of the atmosphere that extends from about 20 to 50 km above the surface, in which temperature rises by about 50 degrees C
thermosphere
the outer layer of the atmosphere that starts at about 100 km in which temperature reaches 1,200 degrees C
trace gases
a group of about twenty gases that make up about 1% of the atmosphere
tropopause
the end of the troposphere where temperature starts to rise with altitude
troposphere
the lowest layer fo the atmosphere extending from Earth’s surface to an altitude of 10 to 20 km, in which temperature declines with altitude at a rate of about 6.5 degrees C per km
A horizon
a soil layer that consists of organic matter mixed with mineral materials, usually containing more mineral material than organic
aridisols
soil in dry environments characterized by eluvial horizons that undergo relatively little leaching
B horizon
a soil layer known as subsoil that accumulates the minerals that wash out from the eluvial horizon
C horizon
a soil layer that consists of the parent material from which the soil formed and that shows little or no sign of soil formation
capillary water
water that fills a soil’s micropores and is held with moderate force
carbonation and solution
a form of decomposition in which carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid, which dissolves minerals within rocks and thereby opens spaces
cation exchange capacity
a soil’s ability to hold positively charged nutrients
cations
positively charged ions
contour plowing
sowing crops in rows that cut across the slope
crop residues
plant parts remaining in a field after the harvest of a crop, which include stalks, stems, leaves, roots, and weeds
decomposition
chemical changes in solid materials that lead to soil formation
disintegration
physical changes in solid material that lead to soil formation
E horizon
a soil layer from which minerals are leached as water percolates through the soil
eluvial horizon
the soil layer from which minerals are leached as water percolates through the soil
erodibility factor
the ease with which soil particles can be detached and transported
field capacity
the quantity of both capillary and hygroscopic water stored by a fully wetted soil
gravitational water
water that moves into, through, or out of the soil by gravity within a day or two of a rainfall event
gully erosion
water erosion in which rills are concentrated into deeper channels
horizons
soil layers that are approximately parallel to the surface and have distinct characteristics that are related to the process of soil formation
humus
partially decomposed plant or animal matter
hydrolysis
decomposition of a chemical compound in a soil’s parent material by reaction with water
hygroscopic water
tightly held water that forms a thin film around individual soil particles
illuvial horizon
a soil layer that accumulates the minerals that wash out from the eluvial horizon
loam soil
soil ideal for agriculture that consists of a roughly equal mixture of clay, sand, and silt
macropores
relatively large spaces within soil
micropores
small spaces within soil
mollisols
soils with a deep A horizon that tend to form under grasslands
O horizon
a soil layer that consists primarily of organic material, which serves as a precursor for soil formation
oxidation
occurs when oxygen combines with compounds in the parent material; this often weakens a material, which makes it more vulnerable to weathering
oxisols
soils that often have a thin O layer and small amounts of nutrients
parent material
the mineral material from which a soil forms
pores
spaces between particles in a soil or an oil field
private costs
costs incurred by the individual who causes environmental degradation
R horizon
a soil layer that consists of hard bedrock
regolith
unconsolidated material that lies above bedrock
rill erosion
water-driven soil erosion in which sheet erosion becomes concentrated in small channels
rooting depth
the vertical distance from the soil surface that contains 95% of a plant’s roots
saltation
wind-driven erosion in which particles bounce along the surface
sand
soil particles that can be seen with the unaided eye
second best problem
implementing a suboptimal policy because real-world conditions are inconsistent with those required for the optimal policy
sheet erosion
water-driven erosion in which a film of water moves across the soil surface
shelterbelts
soil protection provide by rows of planted vegetation between strips
silt
intermediate-sized soil particles that can be seen under a microscope
social costs
the effects of environmental degradation on society
soil
the upper portion of the regolith that has been changed both chemically and biologically
soil conservation techniques
techniques designed to slow soil erosion
soil erosion
the rate at which soil is moved
soil profile
the vertical arrangement of soil horizons
spodosols
soils formed under coniferous forests that have a relatively thin O horizon and a more thoroughly leached eluvial horizon
subsoil
a soil layer known as the illuvial or B horizon
surface roughness
irregularities in the soil surface that retard soil erosion by slowing wind speed
suspension
a wind-driven soil erosion process in which soil particles may be lifted high into the air and carried long distances
terraces
ridges and channels that are constructed across a slope to prevent rainfall runoff from accumulating and causing serious erosion
topsoil
the A horizon
total saturation
the maximum water capacity of soil
turbulent
winds that move across the surface and have an up-and-down component
universal soil loss equation
the equation that represents the amount of soil moved by water
weathering
the breakup of solid rock
wilting point
the level of soil water at which plants lose the ability to support themselves because the soil water that remains is held more strongly than the plant’s ability to absorb it
wind erosion equation
the equation that represents the amount of soil particles that are moved by wind
agriculturists
people who obtain food by changing natural ecosystems in way that increases the amount of edible energy generated
agroecosystems
simplified ecosystems that are set up and operated to produce food for people
cereals
cultivated members of the grass family whose seeds (grains) are eaten by people or domesticated animals
coarse grains
cereals used to feed livestock
coevolutionary hypothesis
the notion that agriculture evolved via a positive feedback loop that includes the human population and the plants and animals humans eat
crop yield potential
the degree to which farmers’ yields approach a theoretical maximum
cultivars
a shortened term for cultivated varieties that refers to plants people have bred for a specific trait or characteristic
domestication
the process by which a species is modified relative to its wild ancestors by selective breeding
economies of scale
reductions in the unit costs of production as the quantity produced increases
eutrophication
a process in which water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive growth of autotrophs
feedlots
confined yards where livestock eat prepared or manufactured feed
fungicides
chemicals designed to kill fungal diseases
gathering
the collection of edible plants from unaltered ecosystems
genetically modified
cultivars with genes from other species
grains
seeds of cultivated members of the grass family that are eaten by people or domesticated animals
harvest index
the ratio of grain to total crop biomass
herbicides
chemicals designed to kill plants
high yield varieties
cultivars bred to produce more edible food per unit area
hunting
capture of wild animals from an ecosystem
industrial livestock production systems
feedlots that produce less than 10% of their own feed
integrated pest management
the coordinated use of pest and environmental information along with available pes control methods to prevent unacceptable levels of pest damage by the most economical means, with the least possible hazard to people, property, and the environment
intensification
reducing the use of land and labor while increasing the use of energy, materials, and water
irrigation
the controlled application of water to cropland, hayfields, and/ or pasture to supplement natural precipitation
livestock
domestic animals raised for food and fiber
monoculture
growing a single crop over a large area
pasture
chemicals designed to kill insect pests or plant diseases
pesticides
chemicals designed to kill insect pests or plant diseases
pests
species, such as insects, birds, or small mammals, that eat cultivated plants
population density
the number of individuals per unit area
precision agriculture
a system of agriculture that seeks to provide the inputs needed for crop growth (water and nutrients) and crop protection without deficiency or excess at each point in time during the growing season
rangelands
relatively unaltered natural ecosystems where livestock graze natural vegetation that is predominantly native grasses, grasslike plants, forbs, or shrubs
resource depletion hypothesis
the notion that agriculture is a response to population growth and the best first principle
selective breeding
the process in which only individuals with traits desired by agriculturists are allowed to reproduce
slash and burn
the process in which an agroecosystem is created by burning a patch of forest
technical change hypothesis
the notion that agriculture arose with increasing human technical capabilities
transgenic cultivars
new cultivars that are created by moving genes from other species into crop species
vegetable
edible seeds, roots, stems, leaves, bulbs, tubers, or non-sweet fruits of herbaceous plants
yield
the amount of edible food grown per land area
afforestation
forest regrowth after a disturbance
clear cutting
a harvest practice in which all commercially valuable trees are harvested at the same time
debt for nature swap
an agreement wherein indebted nations are stricken of some portion of their debt in exchange for the designation of a portion of its forests as a national park where timber harvesting, agriculture, and mining are not allowed
deforestation
the action or process of clearing forests; also: the state of having been cleared of forests
ecosystem management
a harvest practice that balances human needs for wood as a raw material and an energy source with the forest’s provision of environmental services
existence value
environmental contribution to human well-being even when the environment is not used
extensive land uses
practices that use large land areas relative to other factors of production
high-grading
the practice of harvesting only those trees that give the highest immediate economic return
intensive land uses
practices that use small land areas relative to other factors of production
selective harvesting
the process of cutting individual trees or small groups of trees
shelterwood method
a harvest method that removes trees in a series of two or three partial cuts that are designed to simulate a natural disturbance
siltation
accumulation of eroded soil particles at the bottom of a water body
sustainable yield of timber
harvesting timber no faster than the rate at which trees produce new supplies
timber concession
a contract that defines the rules for harvesting trees
transportation costs
the price paid for moving capital, labor, or other inputs into an area or moving agricultural goods, timber, or minerals out of an area
transportation infrastructure
capital used in transportation, such as roads, railroad lines, and ports
turbidity
the degree to which light can penetrate water
absolute water scarcity
a ratio of annual water availability to population less than 1,700 m3 per person per year
aquifer
a soil layer in which all pore spaces are filled with water
artesian well
a well in which water rises to the surface due to internal pressure
best available technology
the most effective, economically achievable, state of the art technology currently in use for controlling pollution, as determined by the US EPA
best practicable control technology
sets uniform, industry-wide effluent standards that approximate the average amount of control achieved from existing technology in the specific industry
biochemical oxygen demand
the amount of oxygen required for aerobic organisms to decompose organic material in wastewater over a five to twenty day period; the usual measure is five days
chemical oxygen demand
the amount of oxygen required to oxidize the organic material in a sample
condense
to change from a gas to a liquid as a result of being cooled
cone of depression
a drop in the water table around a well
confined aquifer
groundwater that accumulates between two impermeable layers
consumption
the purchase of goods and services by consumers
continental divide
the series of ridges through the Rocky Mountains that divides the country into two drainage basins
correlative rights doctrine
rules that govern water use and force landowners to share water
desalinization
production of freshwater by removing the salt from salt water and brackish waters
discharge
water returned after use, frequently at or near its source
dissolved oxygen deficit
the difference between the amount of oxygen in water when it is fully saturated and the amount of oxygen actually present
drainage basin
the area from which surface waters derive surface runoff and groundwater flows
drip irrigation
slow, localized application of water just above the soil surface
evaporation
conversion of a liquid to a gas
fecal coliform count
measures the number of coliform bacteria per 100 milliliters
fishable
a body of water in which fish and shellfish can thrive and be eaten safely by people
freshwater
water that contains less than 1,000 milligrams per liter of dissolved solids
groundwater
water that filles the pore spaces of an aquifer
groundwater discharge
locations where groundwater resurfaces
hydrologic cycle
the flow of water from the ocean through the atmosphere to the land and back to the ocean
infiltration
vertical movements of water through the soil
instream
uses of water that occur without the water being diverted or withdrawn from surface water or groundwater
membrane separation
physical separation of salt from water by pushing seawater through thin filters that do not allow minerals to pass
nonpoint pollutants
pollutants that are not discharged or emitted from a specific point, such as a pipe or smokestack
offstream
water that is withdrawn or diverted from surface water or groundwater
overdraft
removing water from an aquifer faster than it is recharged
pathogens
microorganisms that cause disease
precipitation
the flow of water from the atmosphere as a liquid (rain) or solid (snow or ice)
primary treatment
treatment of municipal wastes that removes large solids by mechanical techniques such as screens and settling tanks
prior appropriation doctrine
a practice dictating that no one owns the water in stream and that all people, corporations, and municipalities have the right to use water for beneficial purposes
privatization
selling a state-owned business to private investors
reasonable use doctrine
a doctrine that allows landowners to pump water for any beneficial use and does not recognize priority among users
recharge area
the area from which an aquifer receives its water
reservoir
a natural or artificial pond or lake that is used for water storage or regulation
riparian water rights
laws that allow a landwoner to use a share of the water that flows naturally past his or her property but do not entitle a landowner to divert water for storage in a reservoir or for use in the dry season or to use water on land outside the watershed
rule of absolute ownership
the principle that allows landowners to pump as much groundwater as they want
runoff
water that flows horizontally across the land toward the nearest surface water
salt water
water that contains more than 35,000mg per liter of dissolved solids, most often salt
saltwater intrusion
occurs when overdrafts allow salt water to flow into aquifer pore spaces that were previously occupied by freshwater
secondary treatment
treatment of municipal wastes that reduces the number of pathogens and accelerates the decomposition of organic wastes by enhancing the actions of aerobic and anaerobic bacteria
sewage
waste and wastewater produced by residential and commercial users that is discharged into sewers
sorption
a process in which soil organic carbon soaks up or attracts agricultural chemicals
subsidence
a drop in land level due to the weight of the overlying material compressing soil particles after water has been withdrawn
surface water
water that sits or flows above land, including lakes, oceans, rivers, and streams
swimmable
a category of water quality in which recreation in and on water will not threaten people’s health
tertiary treatment
treatment of municipal wastes in which undecomposed organic nutrients are separated from the wastewater, which is discharged back to the environment
thermal desalting
a process in which seawater is boiled or evaporated and the steam or evaporate is drawn off as pure water
unconfined aquifer
an aquifer that sits atop an impermeable layer
water diversion
movement of water from surface water or groundwater over some distance to its point of use
water pollution
purposeful or accidental addition of materials that contaminate water
water table
the top portion of the aquifer
watershed
the area from which surface waters derive surface runoff and groundwater flows
waterworks
human systems for supplying water
withdrawals
water that is removed from its source
xenobiotics
organic compounds that are synthesized by humans and therefore are relatively resistant to organic decay
