GE 100 Exam One (Chapters 1-11) Flashcards
natural resource
something we get from the environment to meet our biological and economic needs and wants; environmental goods that come from the lithosphere
environmental services
natural processes that regulate conditions in the environment in ways that make the planet suitable for life
waste assimilation
the ability of the environment to absorb, detoxify, and disperse wastes to make them less harmful
pollution
a waste that produces a physical, biological, or chemical change in air, water, soil, or food that potentially is harmful to humans or other living organisms
principles of sustainability
1) a sustainable society does not use natural resources or produce wastes faster than they are regenerated or assimilated by the environment
2) a sustainable society must account for highly interconnected relationships with its environment and how these connections can cause decisions to succeed or fail
3) the first two principles of sustainability must be meshed with the ethical and moral principles that govern fairness among nations, between genders, and among current and future generations
4) social incentives must reward those who act in a sustainable way and punish those who act in a non-sustainable manner
system
a collection of parts that generates a regular or predictable pattern
non-renewable resource
any use diminishes its future availability
renewable resource
soil, biodiversity, and forests
best first principle
humans use the highest-quality sources of natural resources and environmental services first. As the high-quality sources of a resource are depleted, they are replaced by lower-quality sources. Low-quality sources require more effort to obtain than high-quality resources, therefore depletion makes it harder and harder to obtain resources
human development
the process of enlarging the range of people’s choices by increasing their opportunities for education, health care, a clean environment, income, employment, and political freedom
externality
a cost associated with the production of consumption of a good that is not accounted for in the price of that good and that is borne by others in society
subsidy
government-provided goods or services that would otherwise have to be purchased in the market, or special exemptions from standard required payments or regulations
environmental performance bond
a sum of money a firm must deposit with a government agency before it is granted a permit for an activity with the potential for significant environmental impact; the bond is set at an amount equal to the best estimate of the worst potential future environmental damages; the bond is returned if the firm demonstrates that the anticipated damages did not and will not occur
ecological footprint
equal to all the natural resources and environmental services used to produce your food, clothing, and shelter, as well as the other goods and services you use
elements
a substance that cannot be broken down to other substances by ordinary chemical means
compounds
specific proportional combinations of two or more elements
nutrients
chemical elements that are essential for life
macronutrients
nutrients required in large amounts; “macro” describes the fact that organisms need these elements in relatively large amounts
trace elements
needed in very small amounts; critical to the health of an organism
atoms
units of matter; the smallest units of an element that can combine with other elements in a chemical reaction
molecule
an assembly of two or more tightly bound atoms; the package of atoms behaves as a single distinct object
subatomic particles
protons, neutrons, electrons
protons
positive charge, mass unit of one
neutrons
no charge, mass unit of ~one
electrons
negative charge, little mass
nucleus
protons and neutrons packed tightly at the center of an atom; electrons orbit nucleus at nearly the speed of light
atomic number
the number of protons in an atom’s nucleus; subscript to the left of the element’s symbol
atomic mass
the sum of the number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus of an atom; written as a superscript to the left of the symbol of the element
isotopes
elements with the same atomic number but different atomic masses
physical change
one in which a substance changes its physical form and appearance but not its chemical composition; cosmetic changes
chemical change/ reaction
a substance is transformed into a different substance by changing its chemical composition
reactants
the two elements that combine to create the product
fuels
substances that can be burned to produce heat
combustion
the complete oxidation of a substance through the use of air
radioactivity
the process in which some atoms naturally emit particles or rays with tremendous energies
radioactive isotopes/ radioisotopes
a naturally or artificially produced radioactive isotope of an element
nuclear decay
when a radioactive element emits an alpha particle, its atomic number decreases by two units and its mass number decreases by four units
half-lives
the time it takes for the process of radioactive decay to convert half of the atoms of one element to atoms of another element
radioactive carbon dating
half-lives are not affected by physical treatment or chemical reaction; can be used as a reliable “archaeological clock” to determine the ages of shells, bones, and fossils
fission
occurs when a heavy isotope splits into lighter isotopes; more neutrons and much energy are released
fusion
occurs when the nuclei of two light elements are combined to form a heavier nucleus; a small amount of matter is destroyed and a huge amount of energy is released
*fusion releases much more energy than fission
law of conversation of matter
matter is neither created nor destroyed in a physical or chemical transformation; all that changes is its form or quality
electromagnetic radiation/ radiant energy
the energy carried by light
mechanical energy
the energy of the organized motion of matter, typically is the energy that drives the work done by machines
kinetic energy
the energy of motion
potential energy
the energy of position
chemical energy
energy that is stored in the arrangement of elements, such as the energy stored in fossil fuels or carbohydrates
nuclear energy
the energy that binds the protons and neutrons together in the nuclei of atoms
electrical energy
the force of charged particles acting on one another
heat
the kinetic energy associated with the random motion of atoms and molecules; temperature measures the average speed of atoms or molecules in a substance at a particular time
Work =
Force x Distance
heat of fusion of water
is the energy required to change a gram of water from a solid to the liquid state without changing its temperature; water’s heat of fusion is ~80 calories/gram
heat of vaporization of water
the energy required to change a gram of water into the gaseous state at the boiling point (100 deg C); this is equal to 539 calories/ gram
raw materials
the basic material from which a good or product is manufactured or made
energy converter
a device that converts energy to work (examples: plants, humans, engines)
power
the rate at which work is done or the rate at which energy is used
= Quantity of work done (or quantity of energy used)/ time required to do the work (or convert the energy)
first law of thermodynamics
there is no increase or decrease in quantity of energy in any energy conversion; the total energy input to an energy converter and the total energy output always are equal
second law of thermodynamics
in all energy conversion processes, energy loses its ability to do work and is degraded in quality
efficiency
the amount of useful energy or work output compared to the total energy input
= kcals of work out/ kcals of total energy converted
entropy
the degree of order or organization in a system
*matter and energy that are highly disorganized or random have high entropy
spontaneous process
the tendency for energy and materials to move from an ordered, low-entropy state to a disordered, high-entropy state
entropy law
the general tendency for energy and materials to move from an ordered to a disordered state
nonspontaneous process
the movement toward a greater state of organization
complexity
the number of storages and flows and the number and strength of feedback loops in a system
dependent variable
the variable that is affected by another variable, typically represented on the left side of an equation and along the y-axis of a graph
economic system
the collection of firms and households that produce and consume the goods and services people associate with material well-being
equilibrium
the state of a system in which there is no net change
experiments
a set of actions and observations to verify or falsify a hypothesis or research a causal relationship between phenomena
feedback loop
linkages that move through a system and ultimately connect back to itself
fitness
the number of offspring an individual leaves in the next generation
flows
movements of energy or materials between storages in a system
function
a mathematical formula that relates one variable to another
general systems theory
the study of relationships, structures, and interdependence of storages and flows
gradient
a change in the entropy of energy or matter over a specific distance
homeostasis
the ability of a system to maintain its behavior or set point when disturbed
independent variable
the variable that affects another variable, typically represented on the right side of an equation and along the x-axis of a graph
integrated systems approach
the use of information from many disciplines that is needed to understand and solve specific environmental problems and generate general policy that moves society toward sustainability
invalidated/ falsified
rejection of a hypothesis because observations or experimental results are inconsistent with expectations
natural selection
the differential survival and reproduction or organisms with genetic characteristics that enable them to better utilize environmental resources
negative feedback loop
creating homeostasis by changing the effect of a disturbance after one complete loop so that the system is moved back toward its original state; Moves through a system and
offsets the original effect stabilizing
positive feedback loop
destabilizes a system by reinforcing the effect of a disturbance so that the system is moved further away from its original state; Moves through a system and
reinforces the original effect destabilizing
positive relationship
correlation between parts of a system such that an increase in one part of a system causes an increase in another part of the system
reductionist approach
a scientific methodology based on the premise that the best way to learn about something is to break it into its parts and study the parts separately
resilience
the ability of a system to return to its set point following a disturbance
resistance
the ability of a system to withstand a disturbance
risk management
the process of making decisions without complete information due to the presence of a stochastic element
scenario analysis
a modeling technique that involves entering different sets of data into a model and determining how changes in the input data affect the model’s output
set point
the level of a storage or flow that systems maintain via homeostasis
simulation models
representation of an object, concept, or system showing the expected working of a system
stability
the ability of a system to return a storage or flow to a set point following a disturbance
stochastic
containing uncertainty due to an element of chance
storage
a system part where energy or materials stay for an extended period
subsystem
a system that is part of a larger system
systems
a collection of parts, which are known as storages and flows that interact with each other to generate regular or predictable patterns or behaviors
time lag
the period that lapses between a cause and its effect
validated
confirmation of a hypothesis because observations or experimental results are consistent with expectations
variance
the degree of dispersion or scattering around a variable’s expected value
advection
the horizontal transfer of mass or energy as air masses move in response to pressure differences, such as winds
albedo
the fraction of incoming solar radiation that is reflected back to space
asthenosphere
the upper part of the mantle, which has a consistency that is somewhere between a liquid and a solid and moves large quantities of heat from Earth’s center toward the surface
condense
to change from a gas to a liquid as a result of being cooled
consolidation
the process of joining particles to form sedimentary rocks
convection cell
regular movement in a gas or liquid due to the application of energy that creates gradients in temperature and pressure
coriolis effect
the deflective effect of Earth’s rotation on all freely moving objects
easterlies
surface winds that move from the poles toward the polar front
ekman transport
the overall movement of a mas of water resulting from a balance between the Coriolis force and frictional stress at the bottom
el nino
a change in ocean and atmospheric circulation associated with a weaker than normal zone of high pressure as measured at Tahiti
equatorial low
a region of low pressure near the equator due to rapidly rising air
erosion
the process of carrying away soil particles from their parent material by wind or water
ferrell cell
a zonally symmetric pattern on atmospheric circulation located between 30 and 60 degrees north and south of the equator
gyre
a circular motion of water with a diameter of thousands of kilometers
hadley cell
a pattern of atmospheric circulation driven by solar energy in which warm air rises near the equator, cools as it travels pole-ward at high altitude, sinks as cold air, and warms as it travels equator-ward
igneous rocks
rock formed when molten materials harden
lithosphere
the outermost layer of crust and uppermost mantle that consists of about two dozen major plates on which the continents ride
metamorphic rocks
rocks that have been physically altered by heat and/ or pressure
orographic precipitation
effect that results from or is enhanced by mechanical lifting of an air mass over mountains
photosphere
the visible outer layer of the sun that reradiates energy absorbed from its interior
plate
a large rigid slab of solid rock that makes up a portion of the lithosphere
polar cell
a weak pattern of atmospheric circulation characterized by ascending motion in the subpolar latitudes, descending motion over the pole, pole-ward motion aloft, and equator-ward motion near the surface
polar front
an area of low pressure ate about sixty degrees north and south of the equator
radiation balance
the difference between incoming and outgoing radiation
reflection
the process whereby a surface turns back a portion of the radiation that strikes it
rock cycle
a series of processes through which a rock changes over time, between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic forms
scatter
to disperse radiation in different directions
sedimentary rocks
rocks created by pressure and cementation of particles in a process known as consolidation
sediment
fine particles created from the weathering of rocks
solar consent
the amount of solar radiation that reaches the upper layers of Earth’s atmosphere: 1.97 calories per square centimeter per minute
specific heat
the amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a material of a particular mass
subtropical high
a region of high pressure about thirty degrees north and south of the equator due to the descending portion of the Hadley cell
temperature profile
the change in temperature with depth
thermocline
the portion of the water column where temperature changes very rapidly
thermohaline circulation
regular circulation of ocean waters between the surface and deep layers due to differences in temperature and salinity
trade winds
ground-level winds associated with the pressure gradient that causes air to move from the subtropical high to the equatorial low
upwellings
areas where large quantities of deep ocean water rise back to the surface
weathering
the breakup of solid rock
westerlies
midlatitude surface winds that blow from the subtropical high toward the polar front
winds
horizontal motion of air caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere combined with Earth’s rotation
active range
the span of body temperatures at which ectotherms can carry out their everyday activities
aerobic respiration
the release of energy from glucose or another organic substrate in the presence of oxygen
anaerobic respiration
the release of energy from glucose or another organic substrate in the absence of oxygen
autotrophs
organisms that convert inorganic forms of energy to organic forms of energy
basal metabolic rate
the rate at which an organism uses energy while at rest
biomagnification
increased concentration of pesticides or other toxic materials living in organisms at higher trophic positions via the food chain
biomass
the mass of a species or group of species
carnivores
animals that eat other animals
decomposers
organisms that get food energy from dead parts of other organisms
detritivores
organisms that eat decomposing organic material known as detritus
detritus
dead or decaying organic matter
ecological efficiency
the percentage of energy from one trophic level that is incorporated in the next level
ectotherms
animals that obtain most of their body head from the environment
endotherms
animals that obtain most of their body heat from internal metabolic processes
energy pyramid
a diagram that compares the amount of energy available at each position, or level, in the feeding order
food chain
the simplest representation of energy flow in a community
food web
interconnected feeding relationships in an ecosystem
grazers
organisms in the second trophic position that eat autotrophs
gross primary reproduction
the rate at which autotrophs convert inorganic forms of energy to organic forms of energy
heterotrophs
organisms that obtain energy-containing molecules by eating other organisms
hibernation
a state in which the metabolic rate slows by as much as 99%
K selected
an evolutionary strategy in which organisms allocate a relatively small fraction of their energy budget toward reproduction
maintenance respiration
the use of energy to maintain order in a living system
maturation
a growth process in which juveniles increase in size and change in form to the point at which they are capable of reproduction
metamorphosis
a dramatic change in body form that occurs as juveniles change to adults
mimicry
species without protective chemicals that have the warning colors of animals with protective chemicals
net primary production
the difference between gross primary production and maintenance in autotrophs
omnivores
heterotrophs that feed on both plants and animals
parenting
energy allocated toward reproduction in the form of caring for offspring
photosynthesis
the use of solar energy to break the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms in water molecules, and the incorporation of hydrogen atoms and carbon dioxide molecules to form glucose
phytoplankton
single-cell photosynthetic algae that live suspended in bodies of water and drift about
primary consumers
organisms in the second trophic position that eat autotrophs (also known as grazers)
r selected
an evolutionary strategy in which organisms allocate a large fraction of their energy budget toward reproduction
reproduction
allocation of energy to produce and care for offspring
respiration
biochemical pathways that convert food to energy
scavengers
animals that eat portions of dead animals
secondary consumers
the rate at which heterotrophs create new biomass per unit area in a given time period
senescence
failure of body systems that decreases the probability of survival and reproduction
trophic position
the position along the food chain or food web at which an organism obtains energy
zooplankton
small multicellular organisms that are among the most important primary consumers in aquatic environments
absorption
the movement of nutrients to the interior portion
acid mine drainage
the outflow of acidic water from (sometimes abandoned) metal mines or coal mines
aerosols
tiny solid particles or liquid droplets that remain suspended in the atmosphere for a long time
anoxic
environments without oxygen
available
chemical forms of nutrients that organisms can use
biogeochemical cycles
the flow of matter among storages in the biological, geological, and chemical systems of Earth
biota
all living organisms
carbohydrates
organic molecules that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
deforestation
the action or process of clearing of forests; also: the state of having been cleared of forests
denitrification
the loss of gaseous nitrogen from soil by biological or chemical means
digestion
breaking complex forms of organic molecules into smaller building blocks
essential
molecules that an organism cannot synthesize from its constituents
eutrophication
a process in which water bodies receive excess nutrients that stimulate excessive growth of autotrophs
fats
organic molecules that contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen and can store large amounts of energy per unit mass
flow
movements of energy or materials between storages in a system
kwashiorkor
severe malnutrition caused by a diet with insufficient protein that is found primarily in young children
legumes
plants that have symbiotic relationships with nitrogen fixers
Liebig’s law of the minimum
the growth rate of a plant is often determined by the nutrient that is least abundant or least available relative to the needs of the plant
limiting nutrient
the nutrient that is in least supply relative to the quantity required by an autotroph
mineralization
conversion of organic forms of nutrients to inorganic forms
nitrification
a process whereby ammonia is oxidized to nitrite and then to nitrate by bacterial or chemical reactions
nitrogen fixation
a biological or chemical process by which molecular nitrogen from the atmosphere is converted to organic or available nitrogen
nonessential
molecules an organism can synthesize from its constituents
nonspontaneous flow
movement of energy or matter against the tendency toward a greater state of entropy
nutrients
chemicals that are needed by living organisms
proteins
large complex molecules made up of one or more chains of amino acids
redfield ratio
the ratio of nitrogen atoms to phosphorus atoms that are needed by autotrophs
residence time
the time that an atom spends in a storage pool
spontaneous flow
movements of matter or energy that are consistent with the tendency toward a greater state of entropy
storage
a system part where energy or materials stay for an extended period
symbiosis
the intimate living together of two dissimilar organisms in a mutually beneficial relationship
tailings
material that remains after all metals considered economic have been removed from ore during milling
transpiration
the process by which water absorbed by plants, usually through the roots, evaporates from the plants’ surface, principally from the leaves
unavailable
forms of nutrients that cannot be used by an autotroph
unknown carbon sink
an unknown mechanism that removes carbon from the atmosphere or a known mechanism that removes carbon faster than estimated by scientists
adaptations
behavioral or physiological traits that allow a plant or animal to thrive in a particular environment
benthic
the area on or near the floor of a body of water
biome
a major regional community of plants and animals with similar life forms and environmental conditions
channel
a path that is always filled with water and connects mudflats to the ocean
community
a group of interacting species
competitive exclusion principle
the observation that no two species can share the same exact niche indefinitely unless at least one factor limits the density of the better competitor
convergent evolution
evolution of similar characteristics in unrelated species due to similar environmental stresses
deciduousness
plants that shed their leaves seasonally to avoid adverse weather conditions such as cold or aridity
ecosystem
the community and the physical environment in which the community lives
environmental gradients
changes in conditions from one region to the next
epifauna
organisms that are attached to or move about the surface of the bottom of a water body
epilimnion
the upper layer of a water body where sunlight may power high rates of net primary production
epipelagic
the oceanic zone extending from the surface to about 200 meters, where enough light penetrates to allow photosynthesis
estuary
a semi-enclosed coastal body of water that has a free connection with the open ocean, and within which seawater is measurably diluted with freshwater derived from land drainage
euphotic zone
the surface layer of the ocean that receives enough sunlight for photosynthesis
eutrophic
water bodies that have high net primary production
filter feeders
organisms that obtain food by separating it from passing water
germinate
the process by which a seed starts to grow and develop
growing season
the number of consecutive days during which temperatures remain above zero degrees celsius
habitat
geographical locations and environmental conditions where a plant or animal lives
hadal
the deepest layer of the ocean, below 6,000 meters
hypolimnion
the layer of water in a thermally stratified lake that lies below the thermocline, is noncirculating, remains perpetually cold, and is usually low in oxygen
infauna
aquatic animals that live in the substrate of a body of water, especially in a soft sea bottom
intertidal zone
the area between land that is wetted by the high tide but always covered by the low tide
lentic
characterizing aquatic communities found in standing water
limnetic zone
the well-lit, open-surface water area far from shore
littoral zone
shallow waters that are near the shore
lotic
of, relating to, or living in actively moving water
mesopelagic
the middle layer of the ocean from 200 to 1,100 meters
mudflat
large areas of mud in the intertidal zone that are exposed to the air during low tide
niche
totality of a species’ environmental requirements
oligotrophic
aquatic ecosystems with low rates of net primary production
payback period
the time it takes an energy investment to capture or save an amount of energy equivalent to the investment
pelagic
open areas of the ocean away from the bottom
permafrost
soil material that remains below zero degrees celsius for two or more years
phreatic zone
the saturated soil below a stream
potential evaporation
the amount of water that would evaporate if water were available
prairies
the North American term for grasslands
reproductive range
the area where individuals have enough energy for reproduction
riparian zone
the transition zone between a waterway and the surrounding terrestrial environment
rooting depth
the vertical distance from the soil surface that contains 95% of a plant’s roots
salinity
the concentration of mineral salts dissolved in water
salt marsh
the transition area from land to sea that is farthest from the sea
specializations
adaptations well suited for a relatively narrow range of conditions
survival range
the area where an individual can obtain enough energy and materials to survive
thermocline
the portion of the water column where temperature changes very rapidly
upwellings
areas where large quantities of deep ocean water rise back to the surface
allelopathy
direct or indirect harmful effects of one plant on another through the production and release of chemical compounds
annuals
plants that live for a single growing season
climax community
plant and animal species that tend to persist for an extended period
competition
simultaneous demand by two or more individuals for limited environmental resources
disturbances
a discrete, punctuated killing, displacement, or damaging of one or more individuals (or colonies) that directly or indirectly creates an opportunity for new individuals (or colonies) to become established
ecological resistance
the degree to which an ecosystem changes following a disturbance
ecological restoration
the process of reestablishing to the extent possible the structure, function, and integrity of indigenous ecosystems and sustaining the habitats they provide
ecological stability
the ability of an ecosystem to return to its original state following a disturbance
ecosystem health
the degree to which ecosystems are stressed by human activities
facilitation
a mechanism for succession in which species in early and middle successional communities change their microenvironments in ways that make them less hospitable for their own needs or more hospitable to species that inhabit later successional communities
frequency
number of events per unit time
functional group
species that play a similar role in an ecosystem
inhibition
a mechanism of succession in which one species has a direct or indirect harmful effect on another species
light compensation point
the light level at which photosynthesis generates energy equal to respiration
light saturation point
the light level at which further increases in light do not increase photosynthesis
macroenvironment
characteristics of a large geographical area
microenvironment
small-scale conditions at which an organism lives
perennials
plants that live for several growing seasons
pioneer community
the first plants and animals to inhabit an area that was previously uninhabited
predictability
variance in the average time between events
primary succession
succession in areas where there was no soil or where a disturbance destroyed the soil
redundancy
the presence of more than one species in a functional group
resilience
the ability of a system to return to its set point following a disturbance
secondary succession
occurs when a disturbance destroys a climax or intermediate community without destroying the soil
spatial scale
geographic area
strong interaction
a trophic connection between species in which the predator eats only a few types of foods, so the likelihood of consumption of one species by another is high
succession
a change in plant and animal communities that follows a disturbance
tolerance model
a mechanism for succession in which species replace one another based on their ability to withstand limiting factors
trophic cascades
population changes transmitted via the food web from one trophic position to the next
turnover rate
the average time required to disturb an entire area
weak interaction
a trophic linkage among species such that the likelihood of consumption of one species by another is small
age classes
the number of males and females in an age group
age dependency ratio
the number of people under the age of 15 plus the number of people over the age of 65 divided by the number of people between those ages
age structure
the distribution of a population among age classes
agriculture
the process by which a natural ecosystem is replaced with one that supports plants and animals of people’s choosing
baby boomers
people born in the US between 1946 and 1964
birthrate
the number of new individuals produced by a population in a period
carrying capacity
the maximum number of individuals of a population that can be maintained indefinitely by the environmental goods and services that are generated by a given area of the environment
crude birthrate
the number of births per 1,000 people per year
death rate
the number of individuals that die in a given period
demographic transition
the process of moving from high birthrates and high death rates to high birthrates and low death rates, and finally to low birthrates and low death rates
density dependent factors
variables that affect population growth but are not related to the size of the population
density independent factors
variables that affect population growth and are related to the size of the population
doubling time
the time required for a variable to double
environmental resistance
the slowdown in population growth in proportion to the size of the population
exponential population growth
continuous population growth in proportion to the size of the population
gathering
the collection of edible plants from unaltered ecosystems
geometric population growth
growth in populations that produce a single batch of offspring in a year
hunting
capture of wild animals from an ecosystem
limiting factor
the item that is in least supply relative to the needs of a population
logistic equation
a function describing the idealized growth of a population subject to a density-dependent limiting factor
maximum intrinsic growth rate
the largest per capita rate at which a population can grow under ideal conditions
overshoot
population exceeding carrying capacity
population
individuals of the same species that inhabit a specific area
population density
the number of individuals per unit area
population growth
an increase in population
population histograms
diagrams that represent the number of males and females in various age groups
population momentum
built-in potential for population growth due to a large number of individuals entering reproductive age
replacement level fertility
the total fertility rate at which a population remains a constant
strong sustainability
a criterion that prohibits human actions degrading the environment or using environmental goods or services faster than they are generated by the environment
sustainable development
economic activities that meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
total fertility rate
the average number of children a woman will bear over her lifetime
weak sustainability
the principle that actions that degrade the environment or use a natural resource or a waste-processing service faster than it is generated by the environment can be sustainable if these losses are offset by an increase in either economic capital or social institutions
affluence
the average material standard of living in a nation, typically measured by per capita GDP or GNP
avoided costs
the costs of providing a service (such as chemical pest control) that are avoided by maintaining a natural service (natural pest control)
biodegradable waste
waste that is capable of undergoing anaerobic or aerobic decomposition, such as food and garden waste, paper, and paperboard
capital
any asset or stock of assets, financial or physical, capable of producing income
common property
a resource owned by the public, such as fish in public waters, trees on public land, and the atmosphere
consumption
the purchase of goods and services by consumers
contingent valuation
a valuation technique that asks people directly how much they are willing to pay or to accept for improving or deteriorating environmental quality
crustal abundance
the amount of an element in Earth’s crust, measured as a percentage by weight
depletion
the movement from high-quality, low-cost resources to lower-quality, higher cost resources
direct market valuation
the use of the free market to place a value (price) on environmental goods and services
dissipative waste
waste that is not technologically or economically feasible to collect and recycle
draft animal
an animal used for pulling heavy loads
economic growth
an increase in a nation’s production of goods and services
ecosystem services
the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems, and the species that make them up, sustain and fulfill human life. Examples include provision of clean water, maintenance of livable climates (carbon sequestration), pollination of crops and native vegetation, and fulfillment of people’s cultural, spiritual, and intellectual needs
environmental accounting
any quantitative approach to linking financial and environmental performance
environmental degradation
processes induced by human behavior and activities (sometimes combined with natural hazards) that damage the natural resources base or adversely alter natural processes or ecosystems
environmental energy cost
the amount of solar energy and heat from Earth’s core that are used to produce a natural resource
exhaustion
the complete depletion of a natural resource
factors of production
inputs to the production of a good or service, such as labor, capital, technology, energy, and materials
firms
establishments that produce goods and services for consumers
goods
physical, tangible products used to satisfy people’s wants and needs
green national accounts
the incorporation of environmental benefits and costs into economic decision making. The phrase often refers specifically to incorporating the depreciation of natural resources and the environment into estimates of net domestic product or net national product
gross domestic product
the monetary value of all the finished goods and services produced within a country’s borders in a specific time period, usually on an annual basis
gross national income
the total income earned by the citizens of a country
gross national product
value of all the goods and services produced in an economy, plus the value of the goods and services imported, less the goods and services exported
hedonic pricing
the use of statistical techniques to determine, from the prices of goods with different measurable characteristics, the prices that are associated with those characteristics. The latter can then be used to construct what the comparable price of a good would be from its characteristics
income
the amount of money received from employment (salary, wages, tips), profit from financial instruments (interest, dividends, capital gains), and other sources (welfare, disability, child support, social security, and pensions)
labor
a measure of the work done by human beings, especially work done for wages
labor productivity
the rate of output of a worker or group of workers per unit of time
market failure
the result when the prices of goods and services do not reflect the true costs of producing and consuming those goods and services. In the context of environmental externalities, a market failure occurs when the price of goods and services does not reflect full societal costs, which are conventional financial costs plus environmental externalities
material waste
any materials unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted
natural resource accounting
the process of adjusting national accounts such as GNP to reflect the environmental costs of economic production
natural resource or environmental accounting
any quantitative approach to linking financial and environmental performance
nondegradable wastes
wastes that are incapable of being broken down into simple, less toxic compounds
opportunity costs
the cost of using a resource based on what it could have earned if used for the next best alternative. For example, the opportunity cost of farming your own land is the amount you could have received by renting it to someone else
ore
a mineral deposit containing a metal or other valuable resource in economically viable concentrations
persistent wastes
wastes that degrade very slowly over time
personal consumption expenditures
money spent by households on the purchase of goods and services
petrochemicals
chemicals obtained by refining crude oil. Petrochemicals are used as raw materials in the manufacture of most industrial chemicals, fertilizers, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, and many other products
postconsumer waste
waste collected after the consumer has used and disposed of it
private property
ownership of property (or other assets) by individuals or corporations
production
in economics, manufacturing or mining or growing something (usually in large quantities) for sale
property rights
the rights of an individual to own property and keep the income earned from it
public property
property owned by a government
resource quality
the amount of effort (capital, labor, energy) that is required to extract a natural resource
services
in economics, the nonmaterial equivalent of a good. Examples are airlines, banks and savings institutions, business services, financial services, food, lodging and travel services, information, entertainment and software, insurance, real estate, telecommunications, transportation, and utilities
travel cost method
a method used to estimate the economic use values associated with ecosystems or sites that are used for recreation based on the assumption that time and travel cost expenses that people incur to visit a site represent the “price” of access to the site
utility
in economics, a measure of the happiness or satisfaction gained from a good or service
waste
any materials unused and rejected as worthless or unwanted
waste assimilation
the ability of the environment to absorb, detoxify, and disperse wastes in a way that makes them less harmful
waste heat
the portion fo the energy input to a mechanical process that is rejected to the environment
wealth
the total value of the accumulated assets owned by an individual, household, community, or country
matter
anything that has mass and takes up space
macronutrients
CHONSP
carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorous
trace elements
manganese, selenium, iodine
nuclear change
Substance changes from one element to another due to the emission of a particle or the absorption of a nucleus
nuclear radiation: alpha
two protons and two neutrons
nuclear radiation: beta
high speed electron
nuclear radiation: gamma
high energy x rays
half lives
the time it takes for radioactive decay to
convert half of the atoms of one element to atoms of another element
energy
anything that has the capacity to do work
types of renewable energy
biomass, hydropower, geothermal, wind, solar
types of nonrenewable energy
petroleum, coal, natural gas, uranium, propane
electromagnetic spectrum
radio-infrared-visible-ultraviolet-xray-gamma
calorie
the heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water one degree celsius
horsepower
11 kcals per minute for sustained power
Total Energy =
Useful Work + Waste
Efficiency =
Work Done/ Energy Used
Maxwell’s Demon
second law of thermodynamics only has a statistical certainty
why does order matter?
-Order implies that there is predictability
-An ordered system will follow a typical
pattern as a result of positive and negative
feedbacks
- Systems may be defined by the outcome of
their behavior
-A system that achieves the intended
outcome may be seen as good or successful
goal of biological systems
leave the most offspring in the next generation
evolutionary behavior
Biological systems can be judged as good
or bad if they meet the Darwinian goal of
reproduction
predictability and human systems
When the consequences of a system are
desirable or undesirable, predictability
allows us to avoid undesirable outcomes
and encourage desirable outcome (example: farming)
economic behaviors
maximize profit, utility
economic goals
Efficiency–Pareto optimality Makes some
people better off without making anyone worse off
how do systems generate order?
energy is used to create a gradient (high entropy and low entropy)
homeostasis
the ability to maintain behavior when disturbed
set point
the regularity of behaviors
reductionist approach
study parts in isolation
integrated approach
study interactions among parts
why is atmospheric circulation important?
predictability
density of water
most dense at 4 degrees celsius
energy return on investment (EROI) =
energy obtained/ energy used to obtain energy
surplus energy =
energy obtained - energy used to obtain energy
photosynthesis
CO2 + H2O +sunlight –> C6H12O6 + O2
maintenance
Using energy to maintain order against the
tendency towards a greater state of entropy
Endotherms vs Ectotherms
Ectotherms Endotherms Basal Metabolic Rate Low High Efficiency High Low Active Period Low High Surplus Energy Low High
estivation
changes in response to altered weather
forms of storage
carbs, proteins, fats
senescence
biological aging
leaf area index
the number of leaves that cover an area of the ground
available nutrients
form usable by an organism
unavailable nutrients
form not usable by an organism
redfield ratio
the average composition of plant material
non-essential amino acids
can be made from ingredients (there are ten)
essential amino acids
cannot be made by the body (there are eight)
material and energy balance
storage t+1 = storage t + in t - out t
Nitrogen Cycle
Molecular nitrogen N2 Nitric Acid NO Nitrous oxide N2O Nitrite NO2 Nitrate NO3 Ammonia NH3 Ammonium NH4
nitrogenous wastes
Ammonia - toxic -> aquatic organisms
Urea - mildly toxic -> Many mammals
Uric acid - non-toxic -> reptiles & birds
energy intensive
haber-bosch process
fertilizers
N2 + 3H2 –> 2NH3
sulfur cycle
Sulfate SO4 (oxidized) S 2- Reduced form H2S Hydrogen sulfide CaSO4*H2O Gypsum FeS2 Pyrite H2SO4 Sulfuric acid
determinants of niche
Land use Temperature Cloud Cover Precipitation Topographic
terrestrial biomes limiting factors
temperature: Growing Season
Soil moisture: Precipitation vs. evaporation
solar radiation: Latitude & clouds
types of terrestrial biomes
tropical rain forest dry tropical forest savannah grasslands chaparral desert temperate forests boreal forests tundra
leaves and biomes
Biome, Size, Thickness, Life Span Tropical Rain Forest Large, Thin, Evergreen Dry tropical Forest Large, Thin, Deciduous Desert Small, Thick, Evergreen Temperate Large, Thin, Deciduous High latitude Small, Thin, Evergreen
aquatic ecosystem limiting factors
temperature light oxygen nutrients salinity
Turnover Rate =
Frequency * Areal Extent
unpredictable weather events
volcano eruption
earthquake
predictable weather events
forest fires
wind throw
decreasing variability
temperature, soil moisture
early vs. late successional species
Trait Early Late
Seed Dispersal Long Short
Germination
Trigger Light CO2
Maximum
Dormancy Period Long Short
Allocation
Flexibility High Low
Recovery From
Stress High Low
Nutrient
Acquisition High Low
ecosystem trends through succession
Attribute Early Late
Biomass Low High
Net Primary
Productivity High Low
Food Chains Short simple Long complex
Species
Diversity Low High
Niche Broad Narrow
Mineral
Cycles Leaky Tight
Stability Low High
tolerance
Adaptations by one species allow it to tolerate
conditions that other species cannot tolerate, which
causes the less tolerant species to disappear
population growth =
∆Pop = Birthrate - Deathrate
population change
∆Pt = rmax * Pt-1 * (K-Pt-1)/K
r Maximum growth rate (decimal)
K Carrying capacity
why did Malthus theory not come true?
Humans are able to expand the area from
which they draw life support (trade)
IPAT equation
impact = population * affluence * technology
CO2 emissions = people * (gdp/ person) * (CO2/ gdp
crude birth rate
Number of live births
per 1,000 population in a given year
crude death rate
Number of deaths per
1,000 population in a given year
population growth rate
Growth Rate = Crude Birth Rate - Crude Death Rate
doubling time
the time in years it takes for a
population to double in size = (70/growth rate)
total fertility rate
The average number of children a woman would have assuming that current age-specific birth rates remain constant throughout her childbearing years Replacement fertility is 2.1
private property
Control over the good. Can
exclude others from its use. Can destroy/improve
as owner sees fit
Usufruct Rights
Control over the output from land.
Cannot destroy/improve as owner sees fit
externalities
Goods or services do not reflect the total costs
associated with their production or consumption.
This leads to too much or too little of their
production or consumption. This is known as a
‘market failure’
command & control
Mandates limits on
emissions and/or the use of specific technologies
Market-Based Mechanisms
The use of market
instruments, such as taxes or tradable permits
