Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Y2 > Gastro > Flashcards

Gastro Flashcards

1
Q

Gastro-oesophageal junction 2 features

A

Epithelial transition: change in function

Gastric folds: allow stomach distention

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

Oesophagus motility measurement and regulation

A

Measured using manometry(peristaltic waves 40mmHg, resting LOS 20mmHg)

Mediated by inhibitory noncholinergic nonadrenergic neurons of myenteric plexus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

Hypermotility(Achalasia) pathophysiology

A

Environmental trigger->inflammation
Fibrosis->neuron apoptosis
Loss of ganglion cells in LOS wall
Less NCNA activity->less inhibition so higher resting LOS pressure

Increased risk of oesophageal cancer

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

Achalasia causes

A

Chagas’ disease

Protozoa infection

Amyloid/sarcoma/eosinophilic oesophagitis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Achalasia treatment

A

Pneumatic dilation: circumferential stretching/tearing of muscle fibres

Heller’s myotomy:6cm oesophagus, 3cm stomach

Dor fundoplication: anterior fundus folded over oesophagis and sutured

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Risks of surgery for achalasia

A

Perforation
Splenic injury
Division of vagus nerve

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

Hypomotility(scleroderma) pathophysiology

A 
Autoimmune disease
Neuronal defects->smooth muscle atrophy
Distal peristalsis ceases
Low resting LOS pressure
CREST syndrome
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Scleroderma treatment

A

Exclude organic obstruction

Improve peristaltic force with prokinetics

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Corkscrew oesophagus pathophysiology and symptoms

A 
Diffuse oesophageal spasm
Disordered coordination
Hypertrophy of circular muscle
Dysphagia and chest pain
400-500mmHg
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

Corkscrew oesophagus treatment

A

Forceful pneumatic dilation of cardia

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Oesophageal perforation symptoms

A

Pain
Fever
Dysphagia
Emphysema(uncommon)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

Oesophageal perforation causes

A

Boerhaave’s(vomiting against a closed glottis)

Foreign body(batteries, sharp objects)

Trauma(neck, thorax)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

3 protective mechanisms against GORD

A

Volume clearance by oesophageal peristalsis reflex

pH clearance by saliva

Oesophageal epithelium barrier properties

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

GORD risk factors

A 
Smoking
Chocolate
Alcohol
Sliding hiatus hernia
Rolling hiatus hernia
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

GORD treatment

A

Lifestyle changes
PPIs
Dilation peptic strictures
Laparoscopic Nissen’s fundoplication

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

Stomach cells and secretions

A

Chief cell: pepsinogen

Parietal cell: acid

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

Gastritis causes

A 
H. pylori
Atrophic gastritis(autoimmune against parietal cell)->pernicious anaemia, G cell hyperplasia(carcinoma)
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Gastric ulcer pathology

A

Lack of mucosal protection

Erosive haemorrhagic gastritis->acute ulcer->gastric bleed & perforation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

H. Pylori secretions

A

VacA toxin: gastric mucosal injury

Urease: neutralise acid

Enzymes: mucinase, lipase, protease

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

Portal triad

A

Hepatic artery: O2 rich blood

Portal vein: process nutrients, detoxify blood

Bile duct: produce bile

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

Liver cells and function

A

Sinusoidal endothelial cells: fenestrated, movement of molecules
Kuppfer cells: macrophages
Hepatic stellate cells: damage->deposit collagen
Hepatocyte: metabolism and synthesis of albumin/clotting factors
Cholangiocyte: secrete HCO3 and H2O into bile duct

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

Enzyme for detoxification in liver

A

P450: modification followed by conjugation

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Functions of bile

A

Cholesterol homeostasis
Lipid and soluble vitamin absorption
Excretion of waste

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

Pancreas exocrine cells

A

Acinar cells: low volume, enzyme rich, viscous

Ductal and centroacinar cells: high volume, bicarbonate rich, watery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Regulation of pancreas exocrine function

A

Vagus nerve(enzyme)

Cholecystokinin(enzyme)

Secretin(bicarbonate)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

Small bowel cells

A

Enterocytes: columnar

Stem cells: pluripotent

Goblet cells: more abundant distally

Paneth cells: engulf bacteria/protozoa

Enteroendocrine cells: columnar

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Small bowel motility

A

Segmentation: circular muscles

Peristalsis: sequential contraction

Migrating motor complex

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

Proteases activation in small bowel

A

Enterokinase activates trypsinogen

Trypsin activates other proteases

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

Carbohydrate absorption

A

Glucose:
SGLT-1(apical)
GLUT-2(basolateral)

Fructose:
GLUT-5(apical)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

Calcium absorption

A

Duodenum and ileum
Absorbed by IMcal
Ca binds to calbindin
Ca leaves cell by Na-Ca antiporter or Ca ATPase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Iron absorption

A

Heme iron absorbed by HCP-1
Fe2+ absorbed by DMT-1
Fe enters blood by ferroportin and travels as transferrin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Vit B12 absorption

A

B12 binds to intrinsic factor from parietal cells

Absorbed in distal ileum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

Enteric nervous system

A

Myenteric plexus: senses distention, controls motility

Submucosal plexus: senses chemicals, controls secretions

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
34
Q

Hirschsprung’s disease

A

Congenital absence of myenteric and submucosal plexus
Affected segment is contracted, unaffected part proximal to it is dilated
Reuires surgery

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
35
Q

Gut hormones and cells

A

Gastin: G cells(acid)

Secretin: S cells(alkali)

CCK: I cells(gall bladder contraction)

GIP: K cells(insulin)

GLP-1: L cells(satiety)

Somatostatin: D cells(universal inhibitor)

Pancreatic polypeptide: PP cells

Peptide YY: L cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
36
Q

Hepatocellular cancer tests/investigations

A

Hepatocellular cancer: ultrasound and alpha feto protein(AFP) for high risk patients

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
37
Q

Types of oesophageal cancers

A

Squamous cell carcinoma: upper 2/3

Adenocarcinoma: lower 1/3, acid reflux

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
38
Q

Oesophageal cancer symptoms

A

Dysphagia
Weight loss
Elderly
More commonly male

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
39
Q

Oesophageal/gastric cancer diagnosis

A

Oesophagogastroduodenoscopy(OGD), biopsy to diagnose

CT chest and abdo to stage
PET to check for metastasis

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
40
Q

Oesophageal cancer treatment

A

Curative: neoadjuvant, oesophagectomy

Palliative: palliative chemo, steroids, stent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
41
Q

Gastric cancer symptoms (ALARMS55)

A 
Anaemia
Loss of weight/appetite
Abdominal mass
Recent onset of progressive symptoms
Melaena/haematemesis
Swallowing difficulty
55 years old
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
42
Q

Gastric cancer treatment

A

OG junction: oesophagogastrectomy

Close to OG junction: total gastrectomy

Far from OG junction: subtotal gastrectomy

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
43
Q

Colorectal cancer risk factors

A

Previous cancer
Family history
Smoking
Obesity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
44
Q

Colorectal cancer aetiology and type of carcinoma

A

Adenocarcinoma

Most common GI cancer

More often in descending/sigmoid colon or rectum

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
45
Q

Colorectal cancer presentation and symptoms

A

Bowel obstruction causing tenderness
Bone pain/hepatomegaly if metastasis
Abdominal mass

Right sided/caecal: iron deficiency anaemia, diarrhoea

Left sided/sigmoid: PR bleed, mucus

Rectal: PR bleed, mucus, tenesmus

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
46
Q

Colorectal cancer investigations

A 
DRE<12cm reached by finger
Rigid sigmoidoscopy
FIT: faecal occult blood
Colonoscopy
CT colonoscopy(non-invasive)
MRI pelvis for rectal cancer
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
47
Q

Colorectal cancer management

A

Ascending/transverse: resection and primary anastomosis

Left sided: Hartmann’s procedure, primary anastomosis, palliative stent

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
48
Q

Pancreatic cancer aetiology

A

Highly lethal
Late presentation
Male more common

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
49
Q

Pancreatic cancer risk factors

A

Chronic pancreatitis
T2DM
Smoking
Family history

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
50
Q

Most common type of pancreatic cancer

A

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma(PDA)

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
51
Q

Pancreatic cancer presentation

A 
Jaundice
Weight loss
Pain
GI bleed
Acute pancreatitis
If at body/tail, more advanced
How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
52
Q

Pancreatic cancer investigations

A

CA19-9 >200u/mol

Dual phase CT & MRI checks resectability

Laparoscopy and PET for occult metastasis

53
Q

Types of liver cancer

A

Hepatocellular carcinoma

Cholangiocarcinoma

Gall bladder cancer

Secondary liver metastasis

54
Q

Pancreas protective mechanisms against autodigestion

A

Inactive pro-enzymes
Trypsin inhibitor
Enzymes only activated in duodenum

55
Q

Acute pancreatitis causes(GETSMASHED)

A 
Gall stones
Ethanol
Trauma
Steroids
Mumps/other viruses
Autoimmune(SLE)
Scorpion/snake bite
Hypercalcaemia, hyperlipidaemia
ERCP
Drugs: steroids, azothioprine, NSAIDs, diuretics
56
Q

Acute pancreatitis types

A

Oedematous pancreatitis
Haemorrhagic pancreatitis
Necrotic pancreatitis

57
Q

Acute pancreatitis symptoms

A 
Epigastric pain radiating to back
Nausea and vomiting
Fever
Haemodynamic instability(hypotension, tachycardia)
Peritonism
Haemorrhagic:
Grey-Turner’s sign(flank bruising)
Cullen’s sign(umbilical bruising)
58
Q

Acute pancreatitis investigations

A 
Blood test-> high amylase
X ray
Ultrasound-> gall stones
ERCP->remove gall stones
MRCP->gall stone pancreatitis
59
Q

Acute pancreatitis severity(PANCREAS)

A 
PO2<8kPa (hypoxia)
Age>55
Neutrophil>15 (neutrophilia)
Calcium<2mmol/L (hypercalcaemia)
Renal: urea>16mmol/L (renal failure)
Enzymes: AST>200iu/L, LDH>600iu/L
Albumin<32g/L (hypoalbuminuria)
Sugar>10mmol/L (hyperglycaemia)

Score of 3 or more is severe
CRP>200 is severe

60
Q

Acute pancreatitis management

A

Airway, breathing, circulation

Fluid resuscitation
Analgesia
Pancreatic rest
Determine underlying cause

HDU if severe

61
Q

Acute pancreatitis complications

A

Hypocalcaemia
Hyperglycaemia
ARDS
Renal failure

Pancreatic necrosis
Haemorrhage

62
Q

Pancreatitis infected necrosis treatment

A

Antibiotics

Percutaneous drainage

63
Q

Chronic pancreatitis complications

A

Insulin dependent DM

Steatorrhoea

64
Q

Chronic pancreatitis symptoms

A 
Pain
Malabsorption
Weight loss
Diabetes mellitus
Thrombosis
Obstructive jaundice
65
Q

Chronic pancreatitis treatment

A

Surgical resection
Total pancreatectomy
Distal pancreatectomy

66
Q

Causes of jaundice

A

Prehepatic: haemolysis, massive transfusion

Posthepatic: gallstones, tumours

Intrahepatic: low BR uptake, low conjugated BR, low secreted BR, cholestasis, liver failure

67
Q

Acute liver failure causes

A

Toxins
Inflammation
Pregnancy
Drugs

68
Q

Chronic liver failure causes(cirrhosis)

A 
Inflammation
Alcohol
Drugs
Cardiovascular causes
Autoimmune
69
Q

Liver failure complications

A 
Hypoglycaemia
Coagulopathy & bleeding
Encephalopathy
Vulnerable to infection
Renal failure
70
Q

Hormone affected in liver failure

A

Secondary hyperaldosteronism causing hypokalaemic alkalosis

71
Q

Effect of low albumin in liver failure

A

Ascites

72
Q

Liver failure treatment

A

Encephalopathy: reduce protein intake

Hypoglycaemia: dextrose

Hypocalcaemia: calcium gluconate

Renal failure: haemofiltration

Resp failure: ventilation

Hypotension: albumin, vasoconstriction

Infection: antibodies

Bleeding: vit K, FFP, platelets

73
Q

Visceral vs parietal abdominal pain

A

Visceral: autonomic, dull/cramping/burning

Parietal: somatic, well-localised, sharp/ache

74
Q

Character of abdominal pain

A

Inflammation: constant pain thats worse when moving

Obstructive: colicky, fluctuates in severity, moves to relieve pain

75
Q

Abdominal pain radiation

A

Kidney: groin
Stomach/pancreas/duodenum: back
Gall bladder: right and back

76
Q

Regulation of hunger in brain(which nucleus and which neurons)

A

Arcuate nucleus

Excitatory: NPY/Agrp neurons
Inhibitory: POMC neurons

Act on paraventricular nucleus

77
Q

Hormones in appetite

A

Leptin: deficiency/resistance causes obesity. Acts on hypothalamus

Ghrelin: stimulates NPY/Agrp, inhibits POMC

Peptide YY: inhibits NPY, stimulates POMC

78
Q

Secondary polydipsia causes

A 
Medications
Dehydration
Diabetes mellitus
Acute kidney failure
Conn’s syndrome
Addison’s disease
79
Q

Eating disorders

A

Anorexia nervosa: avoid eating
Bulimia nervosa: eat then purge
Pica: eating non-food items
Rumination syndrome: food brought back from stomach

80
Q

Obesity treatment

A

Bariatric surgery
BMI>40 or >35 with comorbidities

Gastric bypass and sleeve gastrectomy

Remission of diabetes and OSA

Reduced ghrelin, raised peptide YY,GLP1

81
Q

Immunological barrier in mucosal defense

A

MALT: mucosa associated lymphoid tissue

GALT: gut associated lymphoid tissue

82
Q

What is MALT

A

Lymphoid mass in submucosa, containing lymphoid follicles surrounded by high endothelial venule(HEV)

83
Q

What are Peyer’s patches

A

Organised GALT in submucosal distal ileum
Lymphoid follicles covered in follicle associated epithelium(FAE)
Naive B and T cells
Antigen uptake by M cells
Antigen sampling by transepithelial dendritic cells

84
Q

Gut B cell adaptive response

A

Naive B cells express IgM, switch to IgA after antigen exposure
Mature B cells secrete IgA and populate lamina propria

85
Q

Cholera transporter, symptoms, diagnosis and treatment

A 
Secretes cholera enterotoxin
Causes CFTR to secrete chloride
Severe dehydration & watery diarrhoea
Diagnose with stool sample culture
Treat with oral rehydration
86
Q

Infectious diarrhoea viruses

A

Rotavirus: young children

Norovirus: closed communities

87
Q

Infectious diarrhoea bacteria

A

Campylobacter(curved bacteria)

6 pathotypes of E. coli

Clostridium difficile

88
Q

Severe C. diff infection criteria

A

WCC>15

Creatinine>150

89
Q

Types of IBD

A

Crohn’s disease: non-continuous, cobblestone, transmural, non-caseating granulomas

Ulcerative colitis: continuous, ulcerations, mucosa only

Both are autoimmune

90
Q

Types of artificial nutritional support

A

Enteral nutrition: superior to parenteral, NGT/NJT/NDT depending on gastric feed

Parenteral nutrition: nutrients directly into venous blood using central venous catheter

91
Q

Complications of enteral nutrition

A

Mechanical: misplacement, blockage

GI: aspiration, ulceration

92
Q

Complications of parenteral nutrition

A

Mechanical: pneumothorax, haemothorax

Catheter related infections

93
Q

What is refeeding syndrome

A

Biochemical shift and clinical symptoms when reintroducing nutrition

94
Q

Symptoms of refeeding syndrome

A

Hypokalaemia
Hypophosphataemia
Thiamine deficiency
Salt and water retention

Arrythmia, tachycardia
Encephalopathy, coma, seizures
Respiratory depression

95
Q

Bowel ischaemia presentation

A

Sudden onset crampy abdo pain
Bloody, loose stool
Fever, septic shock

96
Q

Bowel ischaemia large vs small(cause, onset and name)

A 
Small occlusive, large atherosclerotic
Large more gradual and mild
Small more painful
Small: acute mesenteric ischaemia
Large: ischaemic colitis
97
Q

Bowel ischaemia investigations

A

FBC: neutrophilic leukocytosis
VBG: lactic acidosis
CT abdo/pelvis: vascular stenosis
Endoscopy for mild/moderate large b

98
Q

Bowel ischaemia conservative management

A 
Only for ischaemic colitis
IV fluid
Anticoagulants
Bowel rest
Broad spectrum antibiotics
99
Q

Bowel ischaemia surgery

A

Exploratory laparotomy: resect necrotic bowel, embolectomy, mesenteric artery bypass

Endovascular revascularisation(patients without signs of ischaemia): balloon angioplasty/thrombectomy

100
Q

Acute appendicitis presentations

A

Anorexia, nausea, vomiting

McBurnery’s point
Blumberg’s sign: rebound tenderness
Rovsing sign: LLQ->RLQ
Psoas sign
Obturator sign
101
Q

Acute appendicitis investigations

A

FBC: neutrophilic leukocytosis, CRP
CT scan gold standard
USS for pregnant/child, MRI if USS inconclusive

102
Q

Acute appendicitis conservative management

A

IV fluids
Analgesia
Antibiotics
Percutaneous drainage if abscess

103
Q

Acute appendicitis surgery

A

Laparoscopic or open surgery

Laparoscopic: cost, pain, hospital stay length, infection rate

104
Q

Small bowel obstruction presentations

A 
Colicky central pain
Early vomiting
Early high pitched bowel sounds
Dehydration
Abdominal tenderness
105
Q

Large bowel obstruction presentations

A 
Colicky central pain
Early constipation
Early & significant abdominal distention
Early high pitched bowel sounds
Dehydration
Abdominal tenderness
106
Q

Small bowel obstruction causes

A

Adhesions
Neoplasia
Incarcerated hernia
Crohn’s

107
Q

Large bowel obstruction causes

A

Colorectal carcinoma
Volvulus
Diverticulitis
Faecal impaction

108
Q

Important points of bowel obstruction

A

Diagnose using symptoms

Check for hernia

Strangulating or simple

109
Q

Bowel obstruction investigations

A 
FBC: high CRP&WCC if strangulated
U&E: imbalance
VBG(vomiting):hypoCl,hypoK,M alkalosis
VBG(strangulated): M acidosis(lactate)
Erect AXR: S bowel 3cm dilation, L bowel 6cm dilation, caecum 9cm
CT abdo
110
Q

Bowel obstruction conservative management

A 
Nil by mouth
Fluid resuscitation
Analgesia, anti-emetics
Faecal impaction: stool evac
Sigmoid volvulus: rigid sigmoidoscopic decompression
SBO: oral gastrogaffin for adhesion
111
Q

Bowel obstruction surgery

A

Exploratory laparoscopy/laparotomy

Bowel resection with primary anastomosis/stoma formation

112
Q

GI perforation presentations

A 
Sudden pain with distention
Guarding rigidity, rebound tenderness
Nausea, vomiting, constipation
Fever, tachycardia, hypotention
Little to no bowel sounds
113
Q

GI perforation investigations

A 
FBC: leukocytosis
High urea, creatinine
VBG: M acidosis(lactate)
Erect CXR: free subdiaphragmatic air
CTAP: pneumoperitoneum, GI content
114
Q

GI perforation conservative management

A

Nil by mouth, NG tube
Broad spectrum antibiotics
PPIs
Analgesia, anti-emetics

115
Q

GI perforation surgery

A 
Exploratory laparoscopy/laprotomy
Primary closure of perforation
Resect perforated segment
Culture abdominal fluid, peritoneal lavage
Biopsy if malignancy
116
Q

Biliary colic symptoms

A

Postprandial RUQ pain with radiation to shoulder

Nausea

117
Q

Acute cholangitis symptoms

A

Charcot’s triad:
Jaundice
RUQ pain
Fever

118
Q

Acute cholecystitis symptoms

A

Acute, severe RUQ pain
Fever
Murphy’s sign

119
Q

Biliary colic investigations

A

Normal bloods

USS: cholelithiasis

120
Q

Acute cholecystitis investigations

A

Elevated WCC/CRP

USS: thick gall bladder wall

121
Q

Acute cholangitis investigations

A

Raised LFT/WCC/CRP
Blood MC&S positive
USS: biliary dilation

122
Q

Biliary colic management

A

Analgesia
Anti-emetics
Elective cholecystectomy

123
Q

Acute cholecystitis management

A

Fluid
Antibiotics
Analgesia
Early/elective cholecystectomy

124
Q

Acute cholangitis managenent

A

Fluid
Antibiotics
Analgesia
ERCP to clear bile duct or stent

125
Q

CNS mutations causing obesity

A

POMC deficiency

MC4R loss of function mutation

126
Q

Hormone in anorexia

A

Serotonin

127
Q

Bowel obstruction AXR signs

A

Small bowel: ladder distension

Large bowel: coffee bean sign

128
Q

3 areas for oesophageal perforation

A 
Cricopharyngeal constriction (OGD related)
Aortic and bronchial constriction 
Diaphragmatic constriction

Y2 (10 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions