Fungi Flashcards
Fungi is a ______ group which consists of (3)_____. It is a very widespread group found in the (3)____. This large group exhibits a diverse morphology, characteristics, and behavior which may reflect its diverse significance and application to different fields.
monophyletic, molds, mushrooms, yeasts, air, dust, fomite
Fungi play a significant role in the ecosystem _______. Some fungal species exhibit beneficial relationships with other organisms and to the system per se.
equilibrium
Fungi are crucial role in the food web and in the ecosystem equilibrium. Since they are predominantly _____, they are one of the major contributors to nutrient cycling. Some species under Ascomycota (i.e. Chaetomium), Deuteromycota (i.e Fusarium, Penicillium, Aspergillus), Chytridiomycota (Chytridium), and Basidiomycota (Fomitopsis) can breakdown of complex organic matter from plants and animals such as cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, lipid, and proteins into ____ forms (Kendrick, 2011).
The degradation of these complex and insoluble organic sources liberates _____ and nutrients such as ______, and ______, and allows its ______ at the soil-litter interface (Boberg et al., 2014; Frey et al., 2003).
saprophytes, reusable, carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), translocation,
Studies also showed a direct correlation of the fungal mass with the _____ ____ of C and N which _____ soil organic matter and nutrients. The regulation of organic matter decomposition and transformation by these fungal species contributes to ___ ___ ___ ______ which can promote plant growth. With this, disturbance on the ecosystem, pollution, and change in the environment may pose negative implications on the decomposition rate by the fungal species present (Frey et al., 2003).
bidirectional influx, stabilizes, soil quality and fertility
Fungi have established _______ relationship among a wide range of organism such as bacteria (cyanobacteria), protist (chlorophyta), bryophytes, plants (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), and insects (coleopterans, dipterans, and homopterans) (Kendrick, 2011). This symbiotic relationship does not only benefit the interacting organisms but has also an implication with the ecosystem and environment.
mutualistic
Fungi have established _______ relationship among a wide range of organism such as bacteria (cyanobacteria), protist (chlorophyta), bryophytes, plants (pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), and insects (coleopterans, dipterans, and homopterans) (Kendrick, 2011). This symbiotic relationship does not only benefit the interacting organisms but has also an implication with the ecosystem and environment.
The following are the mutualistic symbiosis between fungi and other organisms: (3)
Mycorrhizal Relationship, Lichens, Fungus and Animal Mutualism
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi:
This is the establishment of symbiosis between fungi and the plant root where the former provides energy source (carbohydrates) to the fungi for metabolic processes while the latter channels water and nutrients from the soil with their extensive hyphal network.
Mycorrhizal Relationship
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi: Mycorrhizal Relationship
This is the establishment of symbiosis between fungi and the ____ ___ where the former provides ______ (____) to the fungi for _____ processes while the latter channels ____ ____ ____ from the soil with their extensive hyphal network.
In some species (i.e. Aspergillus spp.) can bioaccumulate heavy metal and act as bio-indicator for heavy metal pollution (Iram et al., 2015; Zhou et al., 2008). There are two types of this mycorrizal relationship based on the location of the fungal hyphae extensions: (2)
plant root, energy source (carbohydrates), metabolic, water and nutrients, Ectomycorrhizae, Endomycorrhizae
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi: Mycorrhizal Relationship
This type, ______, refers to…the fungal hyphae form a sheath called ____ that envelops the it, and it extends (called ____ network) into the root vascular cylinder through the intercellular spaces (see Figure 3).
Examples of which are some members of (AB) Ascomycota (i.e. Peziza michelii) and Basidiomycota (i.e. Amanita sp., Piloderma croceum) (Martin et al. 2016).
Ectomycorrhizae, mantle, Hartig
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi: Mycorrhizal Relationship
This type, ______, refers to…The fungal hyphae penetrate the ____ ___ to form ____ where the ____ _____ between the fungi and plant occurs. In addition to increase the nutrient and water absorption of the plant, arbuscular mycorrhizae can increase the _____ of host plant to abiotic stress by triggering the ___ ___ ___ mechanism of plant to ameliorate its negative impacts (Hashem et al., 2018).
Species belonging to Glomeromycota (i.e Glomus mosseae) exhibits this characteristic (Helgason & Fitter, 2009).
Endomycorrhizae, root cells, arbuscules, metabolic exchange, tolerance, antioxidant and osmolyte,
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi:
______ is the mutualistic association between a fungal species and a ____ algae or ____ which clings onto rocks, trees, and other surfaces not normally habitable by other organisms. The ____ provides anchorage, protection, and it promotes dissolution and chelation of ____ nutrients needed by the ____. On the other hand, the phototropic partner provides ____ for the fungus since it cannot produce its own. Some species of the phototropic partner can fix _____ such as Nostoc and Anabaena (Madigan et al., 2012).
Lichen, photosynthetic, cyanobacteria, mycobiont, inorganic, phycobiont, food, nitrogen
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi:
Lichens are sensitive to ____ pollution such as the presence of ____ ____ due to absence of ___ ____ ____which makes pollutants ___ absorbed unto the surface of the organism. This implies its significance as a ____ on the atmospheric quality which garnered the name “___ ____ ___” (Conti & Cecchetti, 2001). The level of atmospheric pollution may directly affect the composition of lichen communities which can be helpful in the control of environmental contamination.
atmospheric, sulfur dioxide, cuticle or stomata, easily, bioindicator, permanent control systems
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi:
____ _____ ____ ____. Some Arthropods establish association with fungi for protection from predators and pathogens. In exchange, they provide nutrients, and mode of dispersal to fungal spores (Rye et al., 2020). For instance, the association between Basidiomycete species and scale insects and fungi farming of leaf-cutting ants as their food.
Fungus and Animal Mutualism
mutualistic symbiosis of fungi: Fungus and Animal Mutualism
_____ ____. Being a pathogenic fungus may not be all negative since it may balance population in an ecosystem. For instance, animal-infecting fungi may reduce the population of ____ that may pose damage and disease to other organisms. The specificity of such fungi can only attack insects (_____ _____) but are harmless to other plants and animals. An example is the Beauveria bassiana which was studied for its potential as control for the spread of emerald ash borer (Fowler et al., 2013).
Biological Control, pests, entomopathogenic fungi
With the diversity of fungal species, there is also a significant diversity in its economic application and value. Some are beneficial which promotes a source of living to society while some may cause debilitating effects to agriculture and other fields. Examples are: (4)
Industry, agriculture, medicine, infrastructure and textile
Fungi Economic Application: ____
Oyster mushroom culture (Pleurotus sp.) is a booming industry at present for its sustainability and relatively lower capital requirement. This has become one of the sources of living of some small-business owners, especially in the rural area. Another impact of fungi to agriculture is the establishment of mycorrhizae in plant roots not only significantly promotes the nutrient absorption of plants but also improves the soil quality.
Agriculture
Fungi Economic Application: ____
Although fungi proved to exhibit many benefits in the economy, many of its species are pathogens of plants and animals. It infects all parts and stages of crops like apical buds, root hairs, seed, grain, seedling, and fruit. Examples are Phytophthora infestans which causes potato blight, Pythium debaryanum can cause seedling dampening, Aspergillus niger causes black rot in fruits and Aspergillus flavus for grain green rot. Infestation during planting and post-harvesting period lead to huge losses to farmers and may affect the supply of crops in the market. Farmers combat these infestations by using fungicide, breeding resistant varieties, and development of biological control techniques (Bryce, 2001; Hussin, 2018).
Agriculture
Fungi Economic Application: ____
Pathogenic and opportunistic fungi can also affect animals. Dermatophytes parasitizes the skin, hair, and nails of animals. Others like Saprolegnia parasitica parasitizes fish eggs and gills (Hussin, 2018). In some cases, fungal infection in animals can be transmitted to humans such as ringworm (Bryce, 2001). Such damages caused by infecting livestock can also affect the economy, meat and poultry supply, as well as loss to business owners.
Agriculture
Fungi Economic Application: ____
Fungi is well known for its use in antibiotic production with the accidental discovery of Alexander Fleming to Penicillin from Penicillium notatum (Encyclopædia Britannica, 2020). At present, there are now various sources of a wide variety of antibiotics with different mode of actions such as the bacterial protein synthesis inhibitor Fucidin from Fusidium coccineum. Other medicinal drugs isolated from fungi are cyclosporin from Tolypocladium inflatum which acts as a immunosuppressant to selectively suppress T-cell, lovastatin from Aspergillus terreus which can lower blood cholesterol. Micronutrients such as Vitamin A, B- 12, and B-complex were also found in some fungal species such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eremothecium ashbyii while steroid like cortisone which can control diseases like allergy and rheumatic arthritis can be produced from Aspergillus niger through fermentation. In addition, alkaloid species, which are considered mycotoxin, emitted by Aspergillus fumigatus are utilized for its function in uterine action (Bryce, 2001; Hussin, 2018; Panaccione & Coyle, 2005).
Medicine
Fungi Economic Application: _____
Fungi can easily thrive in moist places. This means clothes, expensive textiles such as silk and wool are not safe from fungal damages due to the enzyme cellulase that can degrade the cloth fibers (Bryce, 2001). The same is true for paper and wood products. The culprit for such damages are mostly species belonging to Ascomycota. Buildings and establishments often damp or water-damaged are prone to mold growth such as Stachybotrys chartarum (Hussin, 2018). Such damages can also render considerable loss to business and building owners.
infrastructure and textile
Characteristics of Mykes/Fundi:
-eukaryote/prokaryote ____
-food processing: ____
-cell walls containing _____ for rigidity and support
-cytoplasmic membrane contains ____ where the site of action of antifungal drugs, amphotericin B, azole groups
-____ nuclei, _____ chromosomes
-include mi___ and ER___
-reproduce ____
-uni/multi
-most are ____/___ aerobe
-eukaryotic protista
-heterotrophic
-chitin
-ergosterol
-true, paired
-mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum
-asexually, sexually, and both
-unicellular or multicellular
-obligate, facultative
Fungi absorb nutrients from food source, living or dead, by secreting ____ _____ ____ : (6)
hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes, PCXLAP: Protease, Cellulase, Xylanase, Lipase, Amylase, Phytase
These are its chitinous tubular cell walls that enclose the cell membrane and cytoplasm of the cells. It strengthens the cell walls and enhances absorption of nutrients from the surroundings
hyphae
These are the interwoven mass of fungal hyphae that infiltrates the food source, making a very efficient feeding by increasing the sirface-to-volume ration
mycelium
These are the interwoven mass of fungal hyphae that infiltrates the food source, making a very efficient feeding by increasing the sirface-to-volume ration
mycelium
These are specialized hyphae that are used to exchange nutrients between fungi and their plant hosts.
Arbuscules
The exchange of nutrients to plant hosts occurs in mutually beneficial relationships or know as _____ between fungi and plant roots
mycorrhizae
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI: (4)
yeast, yeast-like fungi, dimorphic fungi, filamentous fungi or molds
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
round or oval bodies which reproduce by an asexual process called budding
yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
fungi grow partly as yeast and partly as elongated cells ___ __. The latter form a _____
yeast-like fungi, resembling hyphae, pseudomycelium, Candida albicans
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
-intertwined hyphae, the mass of filaments, or mycelium
-colonies are strongly adherent to the medium
-velvety, powdery, or may show a cottony
-reproduce spores
Filamentous fungi (molds) , dermatophytes, aspergillus
CLASSIFICATION OF FUNGI:
exhibit a yeast form in the host tissue and in vitro at 37 C on enriched media and mycelial form in vitro at 25 C
Dimorphic fungi, Histoplasma
It is used to be a PROTIST and no Mitochondrion! causespneumoniain mammals, including humans with weakenedimmune systems
HIV opportunistic pathogen. They are now recognized as fungi based on the basis of molecular sequence
data.
Microsporidia
used to be an ALGA. They are now recognized as fungi based on the basis of molecular sequence
data.
Hyaloraphidium curvatum
7 or 5 monophyletic clade of fungi:
CBNMGAS
Chytridiomycota
Blastocladiomycota
Neocallimastigomycota
Microsporidia
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
CZGAS
Chytridiomycota
Zygomycota
Glomeromycota
Ascomycota
Basidiomycota
Fungi Clade:
-the earliest lineage
(most primitive) of fungi
-the only fungi with flagellated spores and have coenocytic hyphae
-reproduce asexually by zoospores that are produced in zoosporangia
-common in lakes, ponds, and soils
-example is Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis
Chytridiomycota
Fungi Clade:
-have coenocytic hyphae
-characterized by the presence of protective zygosporangium, as the sexual stage, where zygotes produce haploid spores by meiosis
-commonly known as bread molds or common molds that grow on meat, cheese, bread
- a most common example is Rhizopus stolonifer
Zygomycota
Fungi Clade:
-form arbuscular mycorrhizae with plants
-have coenocytic hypha
-An example is Gigaspora margarita
Glomeromycota
Fungi Clade:
-have septate hyphae and some yeasts
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae, bakers’ yeast and beer/wine fermenter)
-form saclike structures called asci that produce sexual spores, called ascospores (4-8) in ascus
-live in marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats
-some live with green algae or cyanobacteria in symbiotic associations called lichens.
-sac fungi
Ascomycota
Fungi Clade:
-have septate hyphae
-form club-shaped structures called basidia that produce sexual spores, basidiospores
-live in terrestrial habitats and are important decomposers of wood and other plant materials
-club or cup fungi
Basidiomycota
-contain two genetically distinct cell nuclei in the same cell
-compatible cell types can fuse cytoplasm; the two nuclei of two cells pair off and cohabit without fusing.
-This can be maintained for all the cells of the hyphae by synchronously dividing so that pairs are passed to newer cells
Dikaryotic
fusion of 2 haploid nuclei
karyogamy
cytoplasmic fusion
plasmogamy
_______ yeasts often grow and thrive in moist environments where there is abundant supply of soluble nutrients, such as sugars and amino acids
single-celled (unicellular)
________ have enhanced ability to absorb nutrients from their environment due to the presence of hypha (plural, hyphae
multicellular fungi
chitinous tubular cell walls that enclose the cell membrane and cytoplasm of the cells ; strengthens the cell walls and enhances absorption of nutrients from the surroundings
hyphae
2 kinds of hyphae:
septate, coenocytic or aseptate
the presence of ____, have pores that allow the flow of nutrients throughout the entire mycelium, increase the stability of a hypha, and preserve the rest of the hypha when one of its cells is injured
septa
_____ _____ have a continuous cytoplasmic mass due to the absence or lack of septa. It allows a quick transport of nutrients throughout the entire hypha
coenocytic hyphae
Fungi are ____ microorganisms which can be found thriving in soil and spreading spores in the atmosphere. Although most of which are free-living saprophytes, some may be opportunistic pathogens, and may cause serious infections especially for immunocompromised individuals (Madigan et al., 2012). Even though there is low incidence of serious fungal infections, with the growing population and frequent contact of humans with soil, animals, and humans, there is an increased risk of pathogenic fungal transmission; and can lead to small outbreaks if not properly controlled and regulated.
ubiquitous
Fungal infection and diseases:
Inhalation of fungi (specifically its spores) and exposure to specific fungal antigen may trigger the immune response to cause allergic reaction (hypersensitivity). Some fungal species can release potent allergens which may lead to asthma (Madigan et al., 2012). For instance, plants, grains, hay, and other organic materials can be easily contaminated by a variety of fungal species such as Aspergillus sp., Wallemia sebi and Eurotium amstelodami (Selman et al., 2010). When these species release their spores, farmers (which are the first to be in contact) are exposed to a large number of allergens which may lead to disorders that primarily affects the lungs such as hypersensitivity pneumonitis and allergic alveolitis. In addition, some modified agricultural practices, such as haymaking, were found to contribute to the number of antigens found in the agricultural organic materials (Reboux et al., 2006). This implies that agricultural processes may provide a conducive environment for the growth of fungi. Such risks call the attention of practitioners for the proper control and prevention of fungal growth which does not only harm in plants but also to humans.
Immune Response
Fungal infection and diseases:
Hundreds of mycotoxins have been identified. Each of which is produced by specific fungal species. When such mycotoxins are ingested, it may lead to serious or acute illnesses in both animals and humans; and can eventually result in cancer and immune deficiency in the long run (World Health Organization, 2020). One example is the carcinogenic aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus that widely contaminate crops in every stage and process. The entry of this toxin is not limited to direct ingestion of the fungus but also through secondary consumption, such as ingesting meat and dairy products which consumed the toxin (National Cancer Institute, 2018). Another is the nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, and carcinogenic orchratoxin A, produced by selected species of Apergillus and Penicillium, which contaminates food commodities like cereal products, spices, coffee beans, and dry vine fruits. Although this appears to be very harmful when consumed, its well-defined effects can be observed in human kidneys (World Health Organization, 2020).
With the health risks brought about by mycotoxin ingestion in humans brought by contaminated food, the World Health Organization (WHO) collaborated with Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) to assess the risks of food-borne mycotoxin, and establish food safety and quality standards, and risk management protocols in order to control and prevent the contamination, as well as to ensure the safety of consumers and provides confidence to manufacturers.
Mycotoxin Production
Fungal infection and diseases:
Some fungal species can cause disorders and diseases on the host organism ranging from plants, animals, and humans. Moreover, pathogenicity-coding genes can be acquired by non-pathogenic fungal strain and invasion-coding genes can be acquired by invasion gene-free pathogenic fungi through horizontal gene transfer of the whole chromosome (Madigan et al., 2012). This implies the potentials of fungal species to broaden its spectrum of hosts increasing its diversity on animals and humans.
Pathogenicity
Fungal infection and diseases: pathogenicity
This is a fungal infection caused by fungal growth on the skin, hair, nails, and other surface layers (superficial mycoses), in deeper skin layer (subcutaneous mycoses), and in internal organs (systemic mycoses) (Madigan et al., 2012). This can be classified opportunistic mycoses and “true” mycoses.
Mycosis
Fungal infection and diseases:
These are caused by opportunistic fungi that does not usually cause diseases in healthy
humans, but it can cause illnesses in immunocompromised individuals. These are usually saprophytic (if from the environment) or endogenous (if commensal in the body) which can affect various parts of the body (DiSalvo, 2016). Examples are Mucor sp. which causes mucormycosis, Candida sp. which causes candidiasis, Aspergillus sp. for Aspergillosis. Candida spp. and Aspergillus sp. usually affects individuals with AIDS (Madigan et al., 2012).
Opportunistic mycoses
Fungal infection and diseases:
These are caused by pathogenic fungi (infecting both healthy and immunosuppressed
individuals) which can lead to illnesses of different degrees of severity depending on the target site. Table 2 summarizes the common pathogenic fungi, the disease it causes, and the target site.
(“true”) Mycoses
Fungal infection and diseases:
Some of the pathogenic fungi are ____ (animal to man transmission). The presence of vectors of these infectious diseases encourages the spread of fungal infections to wider population and area which may lead to outbreak when not controlled or prevented; thus, risking the public health. Although this is true, it has often been neglected since it is not as notable as bacterial pathogens. An example of a zoonotic fungal pathogen is Sporothrix schenckii which causes sporotrichosis. Several small outbreaks have been recorded all of which are caused by infected domestic animals such as cats and dogs. Another is lobomycosis which is caused by Lacazia loboi infecting the subcutaneous tissues of the skin of humans and aquatic mammals. This is usually transmitted through arthropod and stingray sting, and snake bite (Seyedmousavi et al., 2015).
zoonotic
Like other heterotrophic organisms, fungi also cannot make their own food and are dependent on other
food sources. However, unlike other heterotrophic organisms, fungi do not eat their food. Fungi ____ ____ from the food source, living or dead, by secreting _____ _______ ____ that break down complex molecules into smaller organic compounds that fungi can easily absorb and use. Fungi are mostly _____ ___ _____: organisms that derive nutrients from decaying organic matter (Urry et al., 2016).
absorb nutrients, hydrolytic (digestive) enzymes, saprobes or saprophytes
_____ ______ (fungi that form mycorrhizae) improve the delivery of nutrients from the soil to the
plants. In return, plants supply the fungi with organic nutrients such as carbohydrates. Mycorrhizal fungi
have two main types: ectomycorrhizal fungi and arbuscular mycorrhizal (endomycorrhizal) fungi
(as shown in Figure 6) (Urry et al., 2016).
Mycorrhizal fungi
They have coenocytic hyphae and produce flagellated spores.
Chytridiomycota
It has coenocytic hyphae and is characterized by the presence of protective zygosporangium.
Phylum Zygomycota
It has coenocytic hyphae and forms arbuscular mycorrhizae with plants.
Phylum Glomeromycota
It has septate hyphae and forms saclike structures called asci that produce ascospores.
Phylum Ascomycota
It has septate hyphae and forms club-shaped structures called basidia that produce sexual spores.
Phylum Basidiomycota
