Fundamentals of Bio/Chemistry

Question 1

any substance that takes up space and has mass is called _____

Answer 1

matter

Question 2

matter is composed of what?

Answer 2

elements

Question 3

an _____ has specific chemical and physical properties

Answer 3

element

Question 4

an _____ is the smallest unit of matter that still retains all the chemical properties of an element

Answer 4

atom

Question 5

can an atom break-down into something smaller, while still retaining the properties of the original element?

Answer 5

no

Question 6

molecules result whenever _____ atoms join together

Answer 6

2 or more

Question 7

_____ contain carbon atoms arranged as long chains or rings

Answer 7

organic molecules

Question 8

what atoms does carbon tend to bond with in an organic molecule?

Answer 8

hydrogen; oxygen; nitrogen

Question 9

_____ are molecules that contain more than one element

Answer 9

compounds (ex. H2O is a molecule/compound)

Question 10

what are the strong attractive forces that hold atoms within a molecule?

Answer 10

intramolecular forces

Question 11

which type of force exists between molecules?

Answer 11

intermolecular forces

Question 12

which type of force is weaker… intra- or intermolecular?

Answer 12

intermolecular

Question 13

which type of force (intra-/intermolecular) determines physical properties?

Answer 13

intermolecular

Question 14

_____ are molecules that have the potential of bonding to other identical molecules through chemical reactions

Answer 14

monomers

Question 15

_____ is the process when monomers bond together, and it forms _____

Answer 15

polymerization; polymers

Question 16

_____ are substances that have a large # of monomers bonded together

Answer 16

polymers

Question 17

what are the 3 varieties of carbohydrates?

Answer 17

monosaccharides; disaccharides; polysaccharides

Question 18

monosaccharides have a ratio of precisely _____ to a water molecule, and they have the empirical formula _____

Answer 18

1 carbon; (CH2O)n

Question 19

5 carbon monosaccharides are called _____

Answer 19

pentoses

Question 20

6 carbon monosaccharides are called _____

Answer 20

hexoses

Question 21

a sugar molecule is classified as alpha if the OH group points _____ on the first carbon

Answer 21

down

Question 22

a sugar molecule is classified as beta if the OH group points _____ on the first carbon

Answer 22

up

Question 23

ribose is a _____ sugar (monosaccharide)

Answer 23

pentose

Question 24

glucose and fructose are _____ sugars (monosaccharides)

Answer 24

hexose

Question 25

glucose and fructose are _____ of each other

Answer 25

isomers

Question 26

what type of carbohydrate results when 2 monosaccharides bond together?

Answer 26

disaccharide

Question 27

_____ bring monosaccharides together

Answer 27

dehydration/condensation reactions

Question 28

what reacts with what in a dehydration/condensation reaction?

Answer 28

hydroxyl (OH) + hydrogen (H)

Question 29

what is formed and what is released in a condensation/ dehydration/condensation reaction?

Answer 29

covalent bond formation; release of H2O

Question 30

what is the opposite of a condensation/dehydration reaction - why?

Answer 30

hydrolysis reaction; adds H2O to a covalent bond to split monomers apart

Question 31

what is the name of the bond that occurs when a carbohydrate bonds to another molecule?

Answer 31

glycosidic

Question 32

carbohydrates linked to lipids are known as _____

Answer 32

glycolipids

Question 33

carbohydrates linked to proteins are known as _____

Answer 33

glycoproteins

Question 34

the disaccharide _____ is table sugar

Answer 34

sucrose

Question 35

which disaccharide contains 1 glucose and 1 fructose?

Answer 35

sucrose

Question 36

which disaccharide contains 1 galactose and 1 glucose?

Answer 36

lactose

Question 37

which disaccharide contains 2 glucoses?

Answer 37

maltose

Question 38

polysaccharides are long polymers of _____

Answer 38

monosaccharides

Question 39

_____ may or may not have branching

Answer 39

polysaccharides

Question 40

some polysaccharides are for _____, and others are for structure.

Answer 40

storage

Question 41

_____ is a crucial storage polysaccharide in plants

Answer 41

starch

Question 42

starch contains many _____ monomers in linear forms as well as branched forms

Answer 42

glucose

Question 43

linear plant starch is called _____

Answer 43

amylose

Question 44

what type of glycosidic bonds are in amylose?

Answer 44

α-1,4-glycosidic bonds

linear

Question 45

what is amylopectin?

Answer 45

branched form of plant starch

Question 46

what type of glycosidic bonds are in amylopectin?

Answer 46

α-1,4-glycosidic (linear)

α-1,6-glycosidic (branches)

Question 47

_____ is a storage polysaccharide found in humans

Answer 47

glycogen

Question 48

glycogen contains many _____ monomers

Answer 48

glucose

Question 49

is amylopectin or glycogen more branched?

Answer 49

glycogen

Question 50

what type of bonds does glycogen have?

Answer 50

α-1,4-glycosidic (linear)

many α-1,6-glycosidic (branches)

Question 51

which type of human tissues store glycogen?

Answer 51

liver (mostly); muscles

Question 52

name two alpha-glucose polysaccharides

Answer 52

starch, glycogen

Question 53

_____ is a structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls, wood, and paper

Answer 53

cellulose

Question 54

cellulose is a _____ polymer

Answer 54

glucose

Question 55

what type of bonds does cellulose contain - what do they do?

Answer 55

β-1,4-glycosidic; allow cellulose to linear strands that pack together in parallel

Question 56

what type of intermolecular force holds adjacent cellulose strands together in parallel?

Answer 56

hydrogen bonds

Question 57

cellulose’s structure gives it a high _____

Answer 57

rigidity

Question 58

can humans digest cellulose?

Answer 58

no - it passes through the digestive tract as fiber

Question 59

chitin is a _____ polysaccharide

Answer 59

structural

Question 60

chitin is found in _____ cell walls and _____ exoskeletons

Answer 60

fungal; insect

Question 61

chitin is a structural polysaccharide of _____ monomers

Answer 61

N-acetylglucosamine

Question 62

what type of bonds are in chitin?

Answer 62

β-1,4-glycosidic

Question 63

chitin looks a lot like _____

Answer 63

cellulose

parallel strands cross-linked by H-bonds

Question 64

name two beta-glucose polysaccharides

Answer 64

cellulose, chitin

Question 65

proteins contain polymers called _____

Answer 65

polypeptides

Question 66

polypeptides are polymers of _____ monomers

Answer 66

amino acid

Question 67

in an amino acid, what 4 things is the central carbon bonded to?

Answer 67

H, NH2, COOH, R

Question 68

how many amino acids are there?

Answer 68

20

Question 69

amino acids in a polypeptide are linked by _____ covalent bonds

Answer 69

peptide

Question 70

how do amino acids form peptide bonds with one another?

Answer 70

dehydration/condensation reactions

Question 71

which type of reactions separate the amino acids of a polypeptide?

Answer 71

hydrolysis

Question 72

a peptide bond is an _____ bond involving amino acids

Answer 72

amide

Question 73

amide/peptide bonds occur between _____ and _____ functional groups

Answer 73

NH2; COOH

Question 74

what enzymes catalyze peptide bond formation?

Answer 74

peptidyl transferases

Question 75

peptidyl transferases are _____ transferases

Answer 75

aminoacyl

Question 76

polypeptides have an _____ and _____ terminus

Answer 76

amino (N-); carboxyl (C-)

Question 77

the _____ structure of a protein is its amino acid sequence

Answer 77

primary

Question 78

all proteins have _____ structure

Answer 78

primary

Question 79

the _____ structure of a protein is the 3D shape from intermolecular forces between the polypeptide backbone

Answer 79

secondary

Question 80

the _____ is the amino acid structural features other than the R-group

Answer 80

polypeptide backbone

Question 81

does secondary structure include interactions between R-group atoms?

Answer 81

no

Question 82

which level of protein structure includes alpha helix and beta sheet?

Answer 82

secondary

Question 83

what is the most common type of intermolecular force for secondary structure?

Answer 83

H-bonds

Question 84

the _____ structure is the 3D structure due to non-covalent interactions between amino acid R-groups

Answer 84

tertiary

Question 85

what are the common interactions between R-groups in tertiary structure?

Answer 85

ionic; hydrogen; dipole-dipole; van der Waal; hydrophobic; disulfide

Question 86

what is the “covalent exception” in tertiary structure?

Answer 86

disulfide bonds

these are covalent

Question 87

which amino acids allows disulfide bond formation?

Answer 87

cysteine

Question 88

the _____ structure of a protein is the 3D structure from the grouping of two or more separate polypeptides

Answer 88

quaternary

Question 89

while there are multiple polypeptide chains in quaternary structure, they function as _____

Answer 89

1 protein

Question 90

what are 3 structural classifications of proteins?

Answer 90

fibrous; globular; intermediate

Question 91

fibrous structural proteins are (soluble/insoluble)

Answer 91

insoluble

Question 92

fibrous structural proteins are long polymer _____

Answer 92

fibers/sheets

Question 93

_____ form the structural components of cells

Answer 93

fibrous structural proteins

Question 94

what is an example of a fibrous structural protein?

Answer 94

collagen

Question 95

globular structural proteins are (soluble/insoluble)

Answer 95

soluble

Question 96

_____ structural proteins are folded tightly and perform many functions

Answer 96

globular

Question 97

what is an example of a globular structural protein?

Answer 97

albumin

Question 98

intermediate structural proteins are (soluble/insoluble)

Answer 98

soluble

Question 99

_____ structural proteins are fiber-shaped and perform many functions

Answer 99

intermediate

Question 100

what is an example of a intermediate structural protein?

Answer 100

fibrinogen

Question 101

what are 2 compositional protein classifications?

Answer 101

simple; conjugated

Question 102

simple protein compositions contain only _____

Answer 102

amino acids

ex: albumin

Question 103

conjugated protein compositions contain _____

Answer 103

amino acids + non-protein components

Question 104

what are some examples of conjugated proteins?

Answer 104

glycoproteins (mucin); metalloproteins (hemoglobin); lipoproteins (LDL/HDL)

Question 105

_____ causes proteins to lose their secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures

Answer 105

protein denaturation

Question 106

denatured proteins retain their _____ structure

Answer 106

primary

Question 107

loss of _____ leads to a loss of protein function

Answer 107

shape

denaturation

Question 108

what are some causes of protein denaturation?

Answer 108

excess temperature, chemicals, pH changes, radiation

Question 109

_____ are molecules that increase reaction rates

Answer 109

catalysts

Question 110

despite speeding up reactions, catalysts do not affect the _____ of a reaction

Answer 110

spontaneity

Question 111

_____ are not used up by the reactions they manipulate, meaning the reaction does not change them

Answer 111

catalysts

Question 112

catalysts lower _____ to speed reactions

Answer 112

activation energies/transition state energies

Question 113

_____ do not change energy absorbing reactions to energy releasing ones, or vice versa

Answer 113

catalysts

Question 114

catalysts do not affect the energy of _____ or _____

Answer 114

reactants; products

Question 115

_____ are biological, globular protein (usually) catalysts

Answer 115

enzymes

Question 116

substrates bind to enzymes at the _____

Answer 116

active site

Question 117

not all enzymes are proteins - give an example of an RNA enzyme:

Answer 117

ribozymes

Question 118

active sites have unique properties and _____

Answer 118

substrate specificity

Question 119

the _____ measures how efficient an enzyme is in converting substrate to product

Answer 119

specificity constant

Question 120

enzymes bind at the active site via the _____ fit model

Answer 120

induced

Question 121

non-protein molecules that assist enzymes

Answer 121

cofactors

Question 122

cofactors usually help enzymes by donating/accepting some reaction component, like _____

Answer 122

electrons

Question 123

what are organic cofactors (e.g. vitamins)?

Answer 123

coenzymes

Question 124

inorganic cofactors are usually _____

Answer 124

metal ions

Question 125

_____ refer to enzymes that are bound to their cofactor

Answer 125

holoenzymes

Question 126

what is an apoenzyme?

Answer 126

an enzyme that is lacking (not bound to) its cofactor

Question 127

cofactors that tightly/covalently bind to their enzyme are known as _____

Answer 127

prosthetic groups

forms a holoenzyme

Question 128

enzyme efficiency is determined by _____ and _____

Answer 128

temperature; pH

Question 129

_____ is a form of enzyme regulation, where inhibitors compete with substrates for active sites

Answer 129

competitive inhibition

Question 130

we can outcompete a competitive inhibitor by adding more _____

Answer 130

substrate

Question 131

what is enzyme saturation?

Answer 131

all active sites are occupied

Question 132

_____ is when an inhibitor binds to the allosteric site

Answer 132

noncompetitive inhibition

Question 133

what is an allosteric site?

Answer 133

a different location that is not the active site of enzyme catalysis

Question 134

a noncompetitive inhibitor binding to the allosteric site modifies the _____ so that the substrate has reduced binding or cannot bind

Answer 134

active site

Question 135

enzymes that have both an active site and an allosteric site

Answer 135

allosteric enzymes

Question 136

a molecule that binds to an enzyme at a site other than the active site and affects its activity

Answer 136

allosteric effector

Question 137

we cannot _____ allosteric inhibitors by adding more substrate

Answer 137

outcompete

Question 138

the rate of enzyme catalysis is unaffected by increasing the substrate concentration in _____

Answer 138

noncompetitive inhibition

Question 139

_____ is the substrate concentration at 50% of Vmax

Answer 139

Michaelis Constant (Km)

Question 140

a _____ Km indicates that Vmax is reached at low substrate concentrations

Answer 140

small

Question 141

a _____ Km indicates that Vmax is reached at high substrate concentrations

Answer 141

large

Question 142

in competitive inhibition, Km is raised but Vmax _____

Answer 142

remains the same

Question 143

in noncompetitive inhibition, Km stays the same but Vmax _____

Answer 143

is lowered

Question 144

lipids are _____, non-polar molecules

Answer 144

hydrophobic

Question 145

_____ store energy; insulation; cell membranes; endocrine

Answer 145

lipids

Question 146

what are the components of a triglyceride?

Answer 146

three fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol backbone

Question 147

what are adipocytes?

Answer 147

specialized fat cells that house triglycerides

Question 148

triglycerides are produced by _____ reactions

Answer 148

dehydration/condensation

Question 149

which groups of which molecules react to form a triglyceride?

Answer 149

glycerol (H)

Question 150

what type of bonds exist between glycerol/fatty acids in a triglyceride?

Answer 150

ester

Question 151

addition of H2O to a triglyceride’s esters will break the fatty acids off the glycerol backbone by a _____ reaction

Answer 151

hydrolysis

Question 152

_____ fatty acids have no double bonds

Answer 152

saturated

Question 153

saturated fatty acids form _____, stacked chains

Answer 153

straight

Question 154

saturated fatty acids tend to be _____ at room temperature

Answer 154

solid

Question 155

_____ fatty acids can possess 1 (or more) double bonds

Answer 155

unsaturated

Question 156

_____ fatty acids have 1 double bond

Answer 156

monounsaturated

Question 157

polyunsaturated fatty acids have _____ double bonds

Answer 157

2 or more

Question 158

cis-unsaturated fatty acids create _____ in the fatty acid chain, meaning they do not pack tightly

Answer 158

kinks

Question 159

cis-unsaturated fats tend to be _____ at room temperature

Answer 159

liquid

Question 160

trans-unsaturated fatty acids pack together _____, and they are very bad for health

Answer 160

tightly

Question 161

_____ are a unique type of lipid (fat) in cell membranes

Answer 161

phospholipids

Question 162

what are the components of a phospholipid?

Answer 162

2 fatty acids and 1 phosphate group attached to 1 glycerol backbone

Question 163

phospholipids are _____, meaning they have both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties

Answer 163

amphipathic

Question 164

_____ are like phospholipids but with a carbohydrate group rather than a phosphate group

Answer 164

glycolipids

Question 165

cell membranes form through _____ of phospholipids

Answer 165

self-assembly

Question 166

_____ is another class of lipid that makes up around 30-50% of a eukaryotic cell membrane

Answer 166

cholesterol

Question 167

cholesterol contains _____ hydrocarbon rings and is also amphipathic

Answer 167

four

Question 168

what are the factors that modulate membrane fluidity?

Answer 168

temperature; cholesterol; degree of unsaturation in phospholipid fatty acid tails

Question 169

what maintains membrane fluidity in the cold?

Answer 169

increasing phospholipid unsaturation; cholesterol

Question 170

what maintains membrane fluidity in the heat?

Answer 170

decreasing phospholipid unsaturation; cholesterol

Question 171

the _____ makes cholesterol, and we can also get it from the _____

Answer 171

liver; diet

Question 172

cholesterol is a precursor to vitamin _____ and _____ acids

Answer 172

D; bile

Question 173

_____ is a precursor to steroids

Answer 173

cholesterol

Question 174

describe the general structure of a steroid:

Answer 174

fused 4 ring structure (3 cyclohexanes & 1 cyclopentane)

Question 175

_____ are used as hormones and are a structural component of membranes (cholesterol)

Answer 175

steroids

Question 176

lipids are insoluble and must be transported through the blood by _____

Answer 176

lipoproteins

Question 177

lipoproteins contain a _____ of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins

Answer 177

coat

Question 178

lipoproteins contain a _____ that contains more cholesterol and triglycerides

Answer 178

lipid core

Question 179

_____ (lipoproteins) have a low density of proteins and are generally considered unhealthy

Answer 179

low-density lipoproteins (LDLs)

Question 180

_____ (lipoproteins) have a high density of proteins and are generally considered to be healthy

Answer 180

high-density lipoproteins (HDLs)

Question 181

waxes & carotenoids are _____ derivatives

Answer 181

lipid

Question 182

esters of fatty acids and monohydroxy alcohols

Answer 182

waxes

Question 183

waxes are used as a _____, protective coating

Answer 183

hydrophobic

Question 184

carotenoid structure:

Answer 184

fatty acid carbon chains with conjugated double bounds and 6-membered rings at each end

Question 185

carotenoid function:

Answer 185

pigments, which produce colors in plants and animals

Question 186

what are 2 common nucleic acids to know?

Answer 186

DNA; RNA

Question 187

_____ have a pentose sugar attached to a nitrogenous base

Answer 187

nucleosides

Question 188

a _____ is a pentose sugar attached to a nitrogenous base and a single phosphate group

Answer 188

nucleotide

Question 189

nucleic acids are polymers made of _____

Answer 189

nucleotides

Question 190

nucleoside di- or triphosphates have more than 1 _____ group

Answer 190

phosphate

Question 191

what are the 4 possible bases of a DNA nucleotide?

Answer 191

adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine

Question 192

what are the 4 possible bases of a RNA nucleotide?

Answer 192

adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine

Question 193

nucleotides can be further categorized depending on their nitrogen base as a _____ or _____

Answer 193

purine; pyrimidine

Question 194

_____ bases have 2 rings

Answer 194

purine

Question 195

_____ bases have 1 ring

Answer 195

pyrimidine

Question 196

Adenine and Guanine have 2 rings and are classified as _____

Answer 196

PURines

PUR As Gold

Question 197

Cytosine, Uracil, and Thymine have 1 ring and are classified as _____

Answer 197

pyrimidines

CUT the PY

Question 198

_____ nucleotides have ribose sugars with a hydroxyl on the 2’ carbon

Answer 198

RNA

Question 199

_____ nucleotides have deoxyribose sugars without a hydroxyl on the 2’ carbon

Answer 199

DNA

Question 200

RNA is more reactive (less stable) than DNA because of its _____

Answer 200

2’ hydroxyl

Question 201

_____ groups attach to the nucleotide sugar at the 5’ carbon

Answer 201

phosphate

Question 202

5’ _____ of one nucleotide connect to the 3’ _____ of another nucleotide in nucleic acids

Answer 202

phosphates; hydroxyl

Question 203

bonding between a 5’ phosphate and a 3’ hydroxyl creates a _____ bond in nucleic acids

Answer 203

phosphodiester

Question 204

what creates the sugar-phosphate backbone of nucleic acid?

Answer 204

phosphodiester bonds

Question 205

nucleic acids have _____, with a 5’ and 3’ end

Answer 205

directionality

Question 206

_____ add to growing nucleic acid polymers by losing two phosphates (as _____)

Answer 206

nucleoside triphosphates; pyrophosphate

Question 207

DNA manifests as a _____, _____ helix

Answer 207

antiparallel; double-stranded

Question 208

purines can only H-bond to _____

Answer 208

pyrimidines

Question 209

pyrimidines can only H-bond to _____

Answer 209

purines

Question 210

adenine and thymine (or uracil) pair together via _____ hydrogen bonds

Answer 210

2

Question 211

cytosine and guanine pair together via _____ hydrogen bonds

Answer 211

3

Question 212

unlike DNA, RNA is usually _____ stranded

Answer 212

single

Question 213

what are the 3 fundamental statements of the cell theory?

Answer 213

all lifeforms have 1 or more cells; cells are the most simple unit of life; cells come from other cells

Question 214

does the cell-theory apply to viruses?

Answer 214

no - they are not living cells

Question 215

the central dogma of genetics states that information flows from _____ to _____ to _____

Answer 215

DNA; RNA; proteins

Question 216

an exception to the central dogma of genetics are _____, mis-folded proteins that cause other proteins to mis-fold

Answer 216

prions

Question 217

what is the hypothesis for the creation of the first cell as we know it?

Answer 217

the RNA world hypothesis

Question 218

the RNA world hypothesis suggests that self-replicating _____ molecules were the precursor to current life

Answer 218

RNA

Question 219

what are 2 central facts that support the RNA world hypothesis?

Answer 219

RNA can: store genetic information like DNA; catalyze chemical reactions like proteins