Fundamental Planning Knowledge Flashcards
What is the 1st amendment?
Freedom of Speech; Freedom of Religion; Freedom of Association.
Freedom of Speech: Applies to adult uses and signs
Freedom of Religion: applies to religious facilities
Freedom of Association: applies to group homes
What is the 5th amendment?
Just compensation for takings
applies in cases of takings and eminent domain
What is the 14th amendment?
Due process, substantive due process, procedural due process, and equal protection
Due process: can be applied to takings, eminent domain and exactions
Substantive Due Process: this is about the validity of the rule itself, which in planning might include issues of aesthetics
Procedural Due Process: is about whether the rules were applied fairly.
Equal Protection: often applies to exclusionary zoning
The taking of a property without just compensation is a violation of what amendment(s)?
5th and 14th
What are the Theories of Urban Development?
Concentric Circle
Sector
Multiple Nuclei
Central Place
The concentric Circle Theory
This was developed by Ernest Burgess in 1925.
He believed that cities grow in a series of outward rings, and land use is based on distance from downtown.
There were five rings in his theory: 1) the central business district, which houses a concentration of governmental, office, and commercial uses; 2) the industrial zone; 3) the zone of transition, which has a mix of industrial and low-income housing (at one time this ring had high-income, large houses); 4) the zone of middle class housing; and 5) the commuter zone, with higher-income housing.
Bid Rent Curve
Ernest Burgess
This is a theory explaining land use patterns based on how much people are willing to pay for land, in turn, based on the profits that are likely to receive from maintaining a business on that land.
Sector Theory
This was developed by Homer Hoyt in 1939.
Hoyt was in the real estate business in Chicago and was interested in high-end residential development.
Hoyt disagreed with Burgess’ conception of city growth and argued that land uses vary based on transportation routes. The city, as a result, was a series of sectors radiating out from the center of the city.
Multiple Nuclei Theory
This was developed by Harris and Ullman in 1945. They argued that cities develop a series of specific land use nuclei.
A land use nucleus is formed because of accessibility to natural resources, clustering of similar uses, land prices, and the repelling power of land uses.
Central Place Theory
This was developed by Walter Christaller in 1933, who used it to explain the size and spacing of cities.
The theory states that there is a minimum market threshold to bring a firm to a city and there is a maximum range of people who are willing to travel to receive goods and services.
Central Place Theory can also be useful as a way of understanding the hierarchy of retail establishments in cities (for example nail salons on every block, a grocery store every 10 blocks, and a large shopping center servicing a much larger area).
What are the Theories of Planning Practice?
Rational Incremental Mixed Scanning Advocacy Transactive Radical Communicative
The basic steps in Rational Planning are to:
Set Goals Determine Alternatives Evaluate the Alternatives Choose an Alternative Implement the Alternative Evaluate
Later known as the 5 “D’s”
- Desires
- Designs
- Deductions
- Decisions
- Deeds
Rational planning can only work when the problem can be easily defined and there can be the best solution.
Rational planning should not be used if there is no consensus within a community on a particular issue.
Rational planning was the dominant planning theory through the 1950s. While this model has been discredited, it can still be seen in use in all areas of the planning practice.
In particular, transportation planning is one area in which rational planning persists.
Incremental Planning
In 1959, Charles Lindblom published the article “The Science of Muddling Through”, which introduced the concept of incrementalism.
Lindblom argued that people make their plans and decisions in an incremental manner, accomplishing their goals through a series of successive, limited comparisons.
An example in many communities is the zoning ordinance. Planning departments rarely conduct a complete overhaul of the zoning ordinance; instead, the zoning ordinance is tweaked to assist in achieving the goals of the comprehensive plan.
Mixed Scanning
Amitai Etzioni introduced the concept of mixed scanning as a compromise between rational and incremental planning theories.
Mixed scanning views planning decisions at two levels: the big picture and the small picture.
As an example, a comprehensive plan would be created using the rational planning approach, while the implementation of the plan would use an incremental approach.
Advocacy Planning
Advocacy Planning was developed in the 1960s by Paul Davidoff as a way to represent the interests of groups within a community.
Davidoff argued that planners should represent special interest groups rather than acting for the good of the whole community.
As an example, downtown building owners may put together a plan for revitalizing downtown, homeless advocates may put together a plan for shelters in downtown, and the merchants’ association may have a plan for increasing downtown retailing.
Equity Planning
While advocacy planning promoted the planner as an advocate for special interest groups, some argued that the role of the planner should be to advocate specifically for the disadvantaged in the community.
Norman Krumholz adopted equity planning in Cleveland during the 1970s and helped make the needs of low-income groups the highest priority.
Transactive Planning
Job of the planner is to distribute information and get feedback. Face to face process, individual citizens have say….not very feasible.
Transactive planning theory was developed in the 1970s as a way to get the public more involved in the planning process.
In transactive planning, the planner meets with individuals in the community to discuss issues and help develop a plan. Through a process of “mutual learning,” the planner shares technical knowledge, while the citizens provide community knowledge.
In 1973, John Friedmann published the book Retracking America: A Theory of Transactive Planning.
Radical Planning
In 1987, John Friedmann published a book titled Planning in the Public Domain: From Knowledge to Action.
In it, he discusses the concept of radical planning, which involves taking power away from the government and giving it to the people. In this process, citizens get together and develop their own plans.
Very difficult to implement.
Communicative Planning
Communicative planning is currently the theory of choice among planning practitioners. Planners around the nation have moved towards more open planning that includes a much more intensive citizen participation process.
The communicative approach tries to use a rational model as a basis for bringing mutual understanding among all stakeholders. Planners can provide the stakeholders with information and bring people together to discuss the issues.
What is Dillon’s rule?
This applies in states where the rights of cities are only those that have been specifically authorized by the state.
Thirty-nine states employ Dillon’s rule to all municipalities, while eight states employ the rule for certain types of municipalities.
What is Home Rule?
Home Rule states are those in which cities have the right to develop their own regulations, except where the state has specifically stated otherwise.
What is the difference between the RPAA and RPA?
Regional Planning Association of America - headed by Lewis Mumford, small group of influential planners who believed the “city functional” planners did not go far enough to advance social and economic equality
Regional Planning Agency - still exists; was the planning agency behind the 1929 Regional Plan of NY
Why are greenbelt towns criticized?
They were criticized as being an anti-city effort to suburbanize the city.
What did Jane Jacobs think of garden cities?
Strong critic, viewing them as an attempt to escape the city and as not having any relationship to what cities are actually about.
What is the concentric zone model and who conceived it?
Ernest Burgess, 1925
Simplified model of the city conceived as a series of rings, each having a different function and dominant land use.
How is the sector model different from the multiple-nuclei model?
The sector model conceives of urban structure as wedges that radiate out from the urban core along transportation corridors.
The urban-nuclei model conceives of urban structure around multiple centers of activity.
Legal challenges to exclusionary zoning would fall under what constitutional principle?
The 14th amendment: due process and equal protection under the law.
How is Berman v Parker (1954) related to the Kelo decision (2005)?
In both cases, the US Supreme Court upheld the ability of the government to use eminent domain to take public land for private development.
Why was the Tahoe-Sierra case so important for urban planning?
The court said that a temporary moratorium on development does not alway constitute a taking, thus upholding the ability of governments to plan without the prohibitive expense of eminent domain.
Why did the Supreme Court uphold in the Village of Arlington Heights case?
The court upheld a zoning ordinance that denied approval of rezoning for low-income housing.
The court said it did not violate the equal protection clause.
What famous case upheld fair share housing?
The “Mount Laurel” decision which upheld a doctrine in the New Jersey State Constitution that local governments must use their zoning powers in a proactive way to provide housing affordable to low and moderate income households.
What 1909 case held that limiting building height did not violate the Constitution?
Welch v Swasey
The ability to limit building height.
What is the difference between Police Power and Eminent Domain?
Police power - controls actions and property of individuals without compensation (Zoning is a police power)
Eminent Domain - a taking occurs and just compensation is required
What did the Petaluma case uphold in 1971?
Governments can preserve open space and small town character by managing growth in an orderly way. Limits on number of building permits issued.
This is a valid use of police power.
Why is a right to farm law an example of a “coming to the nuisance” case?
“Coming to nuisance” case involve the question of who was there “first,” which can be complicated since uses change over time.
Right-to-Farm laws insulate farmers from nuisance lawsuits.
Normative Theory
Kevin’s Lynch - said that this theory was most neglected, theories about what ought to happen in cities
What is APA’s core concern on the topic of diversity?
Diversity: essential - need membership that reflects the world; we seek diversity of thought, experience, perspective and approach
Equity: Equality (equal number of box) vs equity (more boxes for less fortunate) equity is the more important goal
Justice
What is environmental justice?
Environmental racism occurs when hazardous environmental effects disproportionately impact people of color (often the case).
Goal is to improve environmental conditions of communities that are at a disadvantage.
How can environmental justice be addressed in a comprehensive plan?
A few suggestions include overhauling zoning to allow mixed-income housing, prioritizing the cleanup of contaminated sites in poor neighborhoods, ensuring an equitable distribution of parks, and prohibiting the construction of housing and schools near freeways.
How do state governments impact local planning?
States grant the police power to local governments.
They also control where investments are made and provide funding for planning.
How do federal and local regulatory powers differ when it comes to cell phone towers?
Both regulate but the location is determined by local government.
FCC (Federal Communications Commission)
State utilities
How are special districts created and what power do they have?
Special Districts (like school or fire districts) are an independent unit of government created for a specific area.
They are created by referendum, and have the power to incur debt and levy taxes.
What powers are limited under a weak-mayor form of government?
The mayor is not the true chief executive officer and has limited powers when it comes to city administration.
The council has executive authority.
What is a Strong Mayor-Council?
The Chief Executive Officer, appoints executive heads, lots of power
What is the Commission Plan?
Similar to weak Mayor-council, each commission has a domain
What is Council-Manager Form of Government?
Appointed, very common in larger cities, the manager has a lot of power.
What are the Forms of Government?
Weak Mayor-Council
Strong Mayor-Council
Commission Plan
Council-Manager
In what ways are planning and public health aligned?
Both public health professionals and planners are concerned with air and water quality crime, pedestrian safety and the effect of the physical environment on obesity and physical activity.
What statement best characterizes the beginnings of the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) system?
It opened in the early 1970s but its story began right after World War II.
The BART story began in 1946 and gradually evolved at informal gatherings of business and civic leaders on both sides of the San Francisco Bay.
In 1928 the U.S. Department of Commerce passed the_____________ Act.
Standard CITY Planning Enabling Act
This author argued “the need is fore deliberate, abstract thought” devoted to what we mean by a good city.
Lawrence Haworth wrote the book, “The Good City”, which argued for a thoughtful approach to what actually makes a city good.
What made the 1954 Housing Act especially significant for urban planning?
It created the section 701 comprehensive planning program - federal planning assistance to local governments, which was a significant boost to local area planning.
This author wrote about the importance of nodes and paths in creating quality urban experiences.
Kevin Lynch wrote “The Image of the City” describing how people actually experience the city through paths and nodes.
What Act created the HOME program?
Cranston-Gonzalez National Affordable Housing Act (1990) created the HOME program.
The HOME program provides block grants to local governments to increase the supply of affordable housing. The funds can be used to provide down payment assistance, construct or renovate affordable housing, acquire sites for affordable housing development and support Community Housing Development Organizations in providing affordable housing.
Steps of the Strategic Planning Process
- Conducting a needs assessment
- Identifying core values
- Creating a mission statement
- Identifying fundamental tenets
- Undertake a SWAT analysis
- Assign strategic priorities
