Functional Anatomy and Embryology Flashcards
1
Q
Unilateral contraction of the abdominal external oblique muscle causes which movement?
A
Contralateral rotation
2
Q
What forms the posterior wall of the inguinal canal?
A
Transversalis fascia
3
Q
From which artery does the right gastric artery arise in most people?
A
Common hepatic artery
4
Q
At which level does the thoracic aorta become the abdominal aorta?
A
T12
5
Q
Which of these is intraperitoneal?
a) Ascending colon
b) Transverse colon
c) Descending colon
d) Rectum
A
Transverse colon
6
Q
Which embryological structure forms the gallbladder?
a) Foregut
b) Midgut
c) Hindgut
d) Allantois
A
Foregut
7
Q
Where are components of Herring bodies synthesised?
A
Preoptic and paraventricular nuclei of hypothalamus
8
Q
Nuclei of which cells are most frequently stained in neurohypophysis?
A
Pituicytes and endothelial cells
9
Q
Which adenohypophysis cells stain deep blue with trichrome/PAS stains?
A
Basophils
10
Q
One possible role for chromaphobes in adenohypophysis?
A
Stem cells
11
Q
What hormones are released from neurohypophysis?
A
ADH and Oxytocin
12
Q
What hormones released from basophils?
A
TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH
13
Q
What hormones released from acidophils?
A
Growth hormone and prolactin
14
Q
Which cells are regulated by releasing hormones from hypothalamus?
A
Basophils
15
Q
How do releasing hormones from hypothalamus reach pituitary?
A
Hypophyseal portal system
16
Q
What do both calcitonin and parathyroid hormone regulate?
A
Ca homeostasis
17
Q
How is parathyroid structure typical of most endocrine glands?
A
Cells arranged in cords alongside an extensive capillary bed
18
Q
What structural features of thyroid gland is unusual?
A
Follicles
19
Q
Thyroid parafollicular cells produce?
A
Calcitonin
20
Q
What is unique to thyroid gland amongst all endocrine organs?
A
Hormone stored in inactive form outside cell
21
Q
Mature hormones produced by thyroid follicular cells are called?
A
T3 +T4
Tri-iodothyronine and tetra-iodothyronine
22
Q
Which AA is mature thyroid hormones related to?
A
Tyrosine
23
Q
Inactive hormone precursor produced by thyroid follicular cells is?
A
Thyroglobulin (thyroid colloid)
24
Q
What hormone is produced by parathyroid cells?
A
Parathyroid hormone
25
What region(s) of adrenal gland arise from neural crest in embryo?
Adrenal medulla
26
Which organ is adrenal glands fibrous capsule continuous with?
Kidney
27
Which region(s) of adrenal gland are regulated by sympathetic input?
Adrenal medulla
28
Which region(s) of adrenal gland arise from part of lining of abdominal cavity (coelom) in embyro?
Adrenal cortex
29
Which region(s) in adrenal glands are controlled by ACTH from pituitary?
Zona fasciculata, Zona reticularis
30
What do delta cells secrete?
Somatostatin
31
What proportion of islet cells produce insulin?
80%
32
Which technique can be used to detect insulin producing cells in an islet?
Immumohistochemistry
33
Which techniques could be used to detect changes in an individual carrying familial (Type 1) diabetes?
PCR
34
What is embryonic origin of adenohypophysis?
Up growth roof of buccal cavity
35
Embryonic origin of neurohypophysis?
Down growth from floor of hypothalamus
36
Where are Herring bodies found in neurohypophysis?
Aggregations of vesicles within axons
37
Where does endocytosis protein come from and what is it's fate?
Blood being filtered from renal corpuscle
| Absorbed into cells of proximal convoluted tubule and destroyed by lysosomes
38
Permeability of collecting ducts regulated by ADH only 9AA long. If hormone is present in bloodstream, would you expect it to be present:
a) Ultrafiltrate collected in Bowman's capsule?
b) Lumen of collective tubule?
c) In urine?
Yes
No
Yes
39
Apart from bladder, where is urinary epithelium found?
Ureter and urethra
40
What are medullary rays?
Bundles of collecting tubules and ducts
41
Function of medullary rays?
Draining nephrons
42
Where are medullary rays located?
In medulla
43
What is the difference between the proximal and distal plane?
Proximal - towards trunk
| Distal - away from trunk
44
What is the difference between ipsilateral and contralateral?
Ipsilateral - in same side
| Contralateral - on opposite side
45
What is another name for external and internal rotation?
Lateral and Medial rotation
46
What is inversion and eversion?
Inversion - turn plantar surface of foot medially
| Eversion - turn plantar surface of foot laterally
47
What are the the 3 epithelial cell shapes?
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
48
What are the 3 layer structures of epithelial cells?
Simple
Pseudostratified - all cells contact with basement membrane
Stratified - only cells located basally have contact with basement membrane
49
What are the 3 types of surface specialisation of epithelial cells?
Ciliated - e.g. airways
Brush border (microvilli) - held erect by cytoskeleton
Keratinized - e.g. skin
50
Where are transitional epithelium cells found?
ONLY in urinary system
| Stratified squamous
51
What is the difference between exocrine and endocrine glands?
Exocrine - secrete to free surface
| Endocrine - secrete to bloodstream
52
During the development of glands, do epithelial cells break through the basal lamina?
No
53
What are the 3 types of exocrine secretion?
| Brief explanation of each
Merocrine - secretory vesicle produced and fuse with plasma membrane to release contents
Apocrine - Part of apical cyto lost with secretory products
Holocrine - Breakdown and discharge of entire secretory cell (skin sebaceous glands)
54
What are the 5 types of cell junctions?
| brief descrip of each
Tight junctions - seals neighbouring cells together, prevent leakage of molecules
Adherens junctions - joins actin bundle in 1 cell to bundle in another
Desmosomes - joins intermediate filaments in neighbouring cells
Gap junctions - passage of small diffusible ions + molecules
Hemidesmosome - anchors intermediate filaments to basal lamina
55
What is the strongest type of cell junction?
Desmosome
56
Which cell junctions are:
a) Anchoring
b) Non-anchoring
a) Desmosomes, Hemidesmosomes
| b) Adherens junctions, Tight junctions, Gap junctions
57
What are the 3 superficial layers of skin?
Epidermis
Dermis
Superficial fascia (Hypodermis)
58
What muscle keeps the mouth closed?
Temporalis muscle
59
What is the serous membrane and what are the 3 structures in the body?
Consists of mesothelium and is double layered
Pleura (lungs)
Pericardium
Peritoneum - lines cavity of abdomen + covering of abdominal organs
60
What are the 2 sections the body drains to in the lymphatic system?
Top right bit (inc right arm) - subclavian veins
| Rest of body - thoracic duct into left subclavian vein
61
What the 5 types of connective tissues?
```
Mesenchyme - embryo only
Loose (areolar) - mesentery + hyperdermis
Dense
Reticular
Adipose
```
62
How many types of fibrillar collagens are there and where commonly found?
```
4
Type 1 - skin, bone, tendons,
Type 2 - cartilage
Type 3 - blood vessels, skin
Type 4 - only basement membrane
```
63
Which type of fibrillar collagen doesn't form a triple helix?
Type 4
64
What is GAG and what are proteoglycans?
Glycosaminoglycans
| GAGs attached to proteins
65
What are the indigenous cells of connective tissue and what gives rise to them?
Mast cells - His secretion, origin immune system
Fibroblasts - ECM producer
Adipocytes - leptin secretion, fat storage, passive hormone uptake
Mesenchymal stem cells produces fibroblast + adipocytes
66
What are the immigrant cells of connective tissue?
```
(Immune system cells)
Neutrophils
Monocytes/Macrophages
Dendritic cells
Eosinophils
Basophils
Lymphocytes
```
67
What type of cells make up cartilage of bone?
Chondroblasts
| Secrete ground substance and collagen
68
What is the perichondrium?
Connective tissue that envelops cartilage when it's not at a joint
Separates cartilage from blood + nerve supply
69
What is the axial skeleton and what is the rest called?
Skull, thoracic cavity
| Appendicular skeleton
70
What is a sesamoid bone?
Developed in tendons where passes over angular structure
| e.g. patella
71
What are the 3 general sections of a long bone called?
Proximal epiphysis
Diaphysis (shaft of bone)
Distal epiphysis
72
What is endochondral ossification?
Growing cartilage replaced by bone to form growing skeleton
Cartilaginous template and bony collar forms around it which cuts off blood supply + nutrients
Cell swell up + die + calcify
73
What is intramembranous ossification?
Bone tissue created directly over mesenchymal tissue
| e.g. flat bones of skull or in healing of bone fractures
74
What are the 2 types of tissue in mature bone?
Compact
| Trabecular (spongy)
75
What are the 3 classifications of joints?
Fibrous
Cartilaginous
Synovial
76
What are the 3 types of fibrous joints?
Sutures - only between skull bones
Syndesmoses - interosseous membranes, immovable joints where bones are joined by connective tissue
Gomphoses - only between bones and teeth (fibrous periodontal ligament)
77
What are the 3 types of suture joints?
Squamous
Serrated
Denticulate
78
What are the 2 types of cartilaginous joints and brief descrip of each?
Primary: synchondroses - plate of hyaline cartilage between opposing surface, x movement
Secondary: symphyses - apposing surface covered by hyaline, separated by fibrocartilage, partial movement
79
What is the tidemark barrier?
Between cartilage + bone
| Osteoblasts from bone can damage cartilage
80
What are the 3 basic features of synovial joints?
| + 2 present in some cases
Ends of bones covered in articular (hyaline) cartilage
Joint cavity
Synovial membrane - lines joint capsule ONLY
(Disc)
(Bursae)
81
What are the 7 classifications of the synovial joints?
```
Hinge
Pivot
Ball + socket
Saddled shape
Ellipsoid
Condyloid
Plane
```
82
What are the 3 types of muscle tissue and which one(s) are voluntary?
Striated skeletal muscle - voluntary
Striated cardiac muscle - involuntary
Non-striated smooth muscle - involuntary
83
What is the difference between ligament and tendon?
Ligament - bone to bone
| Tendon - muscle to bone
84
What are the 2 types of muscle contraction?
Isotonic - concentric: muscle shortens during force production
eccentric: muscle produces force but length increases
Isometric - exert force with no change in length
85
What are the 3 layers of connective tissue that hold muscle fibre in place?
Epimysium - tough, outermost layer, surround whole muscle
Perimysium - surrounds bundles of muscle fibres to create fascicle
Endomysium - surrounds each muscle fibre within fasciculus
86
What are myoblasts?
Embryonic precursors of myocytes
87
What does mitotically quiescent mean?
Not normally dividing
88
What are the muscle's equivalent stem cells?
Satellite cells - multipotent, on surface muscle fibres
| activate to enter cell cycle + become myoblasts
89
What is the:
a) A band?
b) I band?
a) Anisotropic band, thick myosin filament
| b) Isotropic band. thin actin filament
90
What is the centre of the sarcomere called?
H band/zone
91
What is Duchenne muscle dystrophy?
X-linked disorder
| Defective gene for protein dystrophin
92
What is the embryological origin of the axial and appendicular muscle?
Somites
93
What is the embryological origin of the head muscles?
Unsegmented cranial mesoderm
94
What is the embryological origin of the trunk muscles?
Segmented paraxial mesoderm
95
What are the 2 cell types in neural tissue?
Neuron/nerve cells - transmit electrical impulses
| Support cells - support nerve cells, bring nutrients and remove waste products
96
What are the 4 types of glial cells?
Astrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
Oligodendrocytes
97
What are neuroglial/glial cells?
Non-neuronal cells in nervous system
98
What are ganglia?
Nerve cell bodies of neurons that lie outside CNS collected into groups
99
What is the fissure between the 2 cerebral hemispheres of the brain called?
Corpu colosum
100
What is the foramina in the skull?
Where nerves enter and leave brain and spinal cord
101
What are the 3 meninges of the brain?
Dura mater (periosteal, meningeal)
Arachnoid mater
Pia mater
102
What is the difference between lossy and lossless compression?
Lossy - can't go back to original
| Lossless - can go back to original image without losing original information
103
What is the general alpha decay equation?
Unstable radioactive nuclei of an element ==> mass number - 4, atomic number -2, + 1 helium atom
104
What is the general beta - decay equation?
neutron ==> proton + beta - + antineutrino
Atomic no increase by 1
Neutron number decrease by 1
Mass number unchanged
105
What is the general beta + (positron) decay equation?
proton ==> neutron + positron + neutrino
Atomic no decrease by 1
Neutron no increase by 1
Mass number unchanged
106
What is the difference between dorsal and ventral?
Both relate to surface
Dorsal - back/upper side of an organism
Ventral - front/lower side of an organism
107
What is recanalisation?
Restoring flow to an interrupted channel
| e.g. to pharynx and oesophagus
108
What is oesophageal stenosis?
Walls x recannulate properly, walls too thick
109
What is oesophageal duplication?
Duplication of tube
| Bacterial growth
110
What is atresia?
Blockage of tube during recanalisation
111
What is reversed rotation of the midgut?
Duodenum in front of large bowel
112
What is non rotation of the midgut?
When cranial and caudal limbs pulled back into abdominal cavity
Large intestine on left
113
What is mixed rotation of the midgut?
Cranial and caudal limbs go opposite directions
| Caecum top right of abdomen
114
What is a volvulus?
Loop of intestine twists around itself and the mesentery that supports it
115
What is omphalocele?
Intestines, liver/ other organs stick outside of belly through belly button
Has covering of umbilical cord around it
116
What is gastroschisis?
Intestines protrude from anterior abdominal wall
Lateral to umbilicus
No covering
117
What makes up the foregut?
```
Lower resp tract (larynx)
Stomach
Duodenum
Liver + pancreas
Biliary apparatus
```
118
What makes up the midgut?
```
Duodenum distal to opening of bile duct
Jejunum
Ileum
Caecum + appendix
Ascending colon
Proximal 2/3 of transverse colon
```
119
What makes up the hindgut?
```
Distal 1/3 of transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Superior part of anal canal
Epithelium of urinary bladder + most of urethra
```
120
Under what ligament does the left side of the greater sac connect to the right?
Falciform ligament
121
Under what ligament does the greater sac connect to the lesser sac?
Gastrohepatic ligament
122
What is the lesser omentum?
Double layer of peritoneum that extends from liver to lesser curvature of stomach + 1st prt of duodenum
123
What is the greater omentum?
Double layer of peritoneum that extends from greater curvature of stomach and sits in front of intestine
When lifted, releases transverse colon
124
What is the difference between parietal and visceral peritoneum?
Parietal - covers abdominal and pelvic cavities
| Visceral - covers each organ individually
125
In the subdivisions of the abdomen, what are the vertical lines called?
Lateral lines
126
In the subdivisions of the abdomen, what are the horizontal lines called (from top to bottom)?
Transpyloric plane - transversely through pylons
Subcostal plane
Transtubercular plane - passes 2 tubercles that lie on crest of ileum
127
What costal cartilages does the rectus abdominis arise from and where does it attach?
Costal cartilage of ribs 5,6,7
| Attaches to ridge between pubic crest
128
What 2 layers is the superficial fascia of the abdomen made up of?
Camper's fascia - full fat
| Scarpa's fat - membraneous layer
129
What is the innervation of rectus abdominis?
T7-T12
130
What is the innervation of external oblique?
T7-T12
131
What is the innervation of internal oblique?
T7-L1
132
What is the innervation of transverse abdominis?
T7-L1
133
Which way does internal oblique pull the trunk?
To same side
134
Which direction do these muscles go around rectus abdominis?
a) External oblique
b) Internal oblique
c) Transverse abdominis
a) In front, bottom end folds under on self, forms inguinal ligament
b) Splits in 2, half in front, half goes behind
c) Behind
135
What percentage of hernias are umbilical?
14-20%
136
What is the difference between femoral and inguinal hernias?
Femoral - lies lateral to pubic tubercle, below inguinal ligament
Inguinal - lies medial to pubic tubercle, originates above inguinal ligament
137
In the development of the spermatic cord, what does Camper's fascia become?
Dartos muscle, as lose fat as go around testes
138
In the development of the spermatic cord, what does Scarpa's fascia become?
Colles fascia, becomes continuous with deep fascia
139
In the development of the spermatic cord, what does external oblique become?
External spermatic fascia
140
In the development of the spermatic cord, what does internal oblique become?
Cremasteric muscle + fascia
| Takes some of muscle fibres
141
In the development of the spermatic cord, what does transverse fascia become?
Internal spermatic fascia
142
What is the difference between a direct and an indirect hernia?
Direct - through inguinal triangle, through superficial ring, weakened muscles of abdominal wall
Indirect - through deep and superficial ring
143
What is a....?
a) Hypertonic stomach
b) Hypotonic stomach
c) Atonic stomach
d) Steer Horn stomach
Look at shapes on stomach and spleen notes
a) Fundus is much bigger
b) Overstretched stomach
c) Stomach is long
d) Long, transverse, seen in endomorphs
144
What is a.....?
a) Ectomorph
b) Endomorph
c) Mesomorph
a) Tall, slim person
b) Short, stumpy person
c) The norm person
145
What are the 5 parts of the stomach?
```
Cardia - where oesophagus meets stomach
Fundus - normally gas filled
Body - HCl, pepsinogen, intrinsic factor
Pyloric antrum - gastrin
Pylorus - where sphincter is
```
146
Why does the carida of the stomach secrete mucus?
Protect oesophagus from acidic stomach content
147
Why is the duodenum positioned above the stomach?
If below, gravity would move chyme into duodenum + cause it to become overloaded
148
What does the stomach absorb?
Water
Electrolytes
Alcohol
Aspirin - can cause leakage of blood vessels in stomach wall
149
How long does food remain in the stomach for? (approx)
4 hours
150
What 3 layers does the mucosa of the stomach consist of?
Columnar epithelium - absorbing
Lamina propria - contain gastric glands
Muscularis mucosa - movement within lumen to propel gut contents
151
What 5 layers does the submucosa of the stomach have?
```
Loose connective tissue
Blood vessels
Lymphatics
Nerves - prt of enteric NS
Glands
```
152
What is Meissner's plexus?
Submucosal plexus
| Derived from myenteric plexus, which is derived from plexuses of parasymp nerves around superior mesenteric arteries
153
What are the 2 layers in the muscularis externa?
| And nerve supply?
Outer longitudinal
Inner circular
Myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus
154
What is the serosa?
Peritoneum membrane wrapping around gut
155
What extra layer does the stomach wall have in addition to the layers in the muscularis externa?
Inner oblique layer
156
What is the rugae of the stomach?
Longitudinal folds of the mucosa
157
What is the incisura angularis of the stomach and what is above it anatomically?
Sharp angle in stomach
| Abdominal aorta
158
What is the difference between intraperitoneal and retroperitoneal?
Intraperitoneal - completely surrounded in peritoneum, flexible
Retroperitoneal - partly covered in peritoneum, rigid
159
What areas of the stomach does the left lobe of the liver cover?
Cardia, and prt of fundus
160
What organ(s) is behind the stomach?
Pancreas, left kidney
161
What is the parasympathetic innervation of the stomach?
Vagus nerve
Left crosses in front of oeso ==> Anterior vagal trunk
Right goes behind oeso ==> Posterior vagal trunk
162
What is the sympathetic innervation of the stomach?
Splanchnic nerve
| T6-T9
163
What is hepatomegaly?
Enlargement of liver - is palpable
164
What organ is the bare area of the liver in direct contact with?
Diaphragm
165
What flexure of the colon leaves an indentation on the visceral surface of the liver?
Hepatic flexure - junction between ascending colon and transverse colon
166
What ligament divides the right and left lobes of the liver?
Falciform ligament
167
How many functional lobes can the liver be divided into and what are they called?
8
| Couinaud's Divisions
168
What are the lobes in the H division of the liver?
Caudate
Quadrate
Left
Right
169
What are the ligaments at the top of the liver?
Left triangle ligament
RIght triangle ligament
Coronary ligament
170
What manoeuvre is used to cut off blood supply to liver?
Pringle maneouvre
171
What is Calot's triangle?
Identifies cystic artery + cuts off blood supply when need to remove gall bladder
172
What vein is the ...... drained by?
a) Foregut
b) Midgut
c) Hindgut
a) Splenic vein
b) Superior mesenteric - joins splenic + joining of both forms hepatic portal vein
c) Inferior mesenteric vein - joins splenic
173
Where do the oesophageal veins drain to?
Upwards to azygos vein in thorax
174
What part of the duodenum does the bile and pancreatic duct terminate?
2nd part
175
What is the sphincter of Oddi?
Smooth muscle surrounding end portion of common bile duct and pancreatic duct
176
What is the greater duodenal papilla?
Where the common bile duct and pancreatic duct open into the duodenum
177
What is the hepatopancreatic ampulla/ampulla of Vater?
Union of bile duct and pancreatic duct
178
Where is the
a) Head
b) Tail
of the pancreas located?
a) Curve of duodenum - under superior mesenteric artery
| b) Extends to spleen
179
What are the indentations of the rectum?
1 fold right
| 2 folds left
180
What are the female rectal pouch(es)?
```
Rectouterine pouch (Pouch of Douglas) - uterus and rectum
Vesicouterine pouch - uterus and bladder
```
181
What are the male rectal pouch(es)?
Rectovesical pouch - rectum and bladder
182
How many sections is the rectum divided into and and what is the peritoneum covering of each?
3
Upper third - peritoneum on front and sides
Middle third - peritoneum in front only
Lower third - devoid of peritoneum
183
What is the ischiorectal fossa?
Wraps around anal canal
184
What is the pudendal canal/Alcock's canal?
Structure in pelvis through where internal pudendal artery, internal pudendal veins, + pudendal nerve pass.
185
What is the perineal body?
Area to allow anchoring of muscle fibres
186
What structure attaches at the anal coccygeal body?
External anal sphincter muscle
187
When does the puborectalis muscle relax?
During defecation,
| Changes angle between rectum + anal canal by straightening junction
188
What is the area under the last fold of the rectum?
Rectal ampulla
189
What is the name of the line that indicates the end of the rectum?
(What is name of region under this line)
Pectinate line
| Proctodeum
190
Which part of the anal canal has longitudinal folds of mucosa (anal columns)?
Upper anal canal
191
What is the name of the line where the internal sphincter of the anal canal ends?
Hilton's white line
192
What area does the proctoscope see?
Looks at anal canal + rectal ampulla
| Sees area of proctodeum
193
Which anal sphincter is under somatic control?
External anal sphincter
194
What area does the superior rectal artery supply?
Supplies rectum + upper half of anal canal
195
What artery does middle rectal artery branch from?
Internal iliac artery
196
What artery supplies below the pelvic floor and pectinate floor?
Inferior rectal artery - branch of internal pudendal artery
197
What is an internal hemorrhoid?
Swelling of vein into anal canal above pectinate line
198
What is an external hemorrhoid?
Swelling of vein below pectinate line
| If examining patient, see bulges in 11, 3, 7 o clock positons
199
Where are the stretch receptors of the anal canal arise from?
Parasymp S2-4
200
What nerve carries somatic sensation from anal sphincter + ischioanal fossa?
Pudendal nerve
201
Where does the foregut end?
After entry of common bile duct
202
Where does midgut end?
2/3 of way along transverse colon
203
Where does the hindgut end?
Halfway down anal canal
204
What are the intraperitoneal organs?
Stomach, spleen, liver, bulb (start) of duodenum, jejunum, ileum, transverse colon, sigmoid colon
205
What are the retroperitoneal organs?
Remainder of duodenum, cecum + ascending colon, descending colon, pancreas, kidneys
206
For the parts bowel that aren't covered in peritoneum , what are they hinged on?
The Mesentery
Hinged on posterior abdominal wall
From duodenal jejunal flexure to ileocaecal joint
15cm long
207
What are the 3 divisions of the SI and where does it start and end?
Duodenum (<5%)
Jejunum (<40%)
Ileum (<60%)
Runs from pyloric sphincter to ileocecal junction
208
How many parts of the duodenum are there?
4
209
What are the folds in the duodenum called?
Pliegues circulares
210
Which part of the duodenum is crossed by the superior mesenteric artery and vein?
3rd part
211
What ligament holds up the duodenal jejunal flexure?
Suspensory ligament AKA Ligament of Treitz
| Connected to diaphragm
212
What are the names of the mucus glands in the duodenum?
Brunner's glands
213
What type of arteries are vasa recta?
Anatomical end arteries
| X anastomotic connections to each other
214
What are the blood vessels like in the jejunal mucosa?
Long vasa recta
Short arterial arcades
Mesentery has v little fat so can see blood vessels easily
215
What are the blood vessels like in the ileal mucosa?
Short vasa recta
Complex arterial arcades
Fat-filled mesentery
216
What are Peyer's patches and where are they found?
Islands of lymphoid tissue in ileum wall
| GALT - gut associated lymphoid tissue
217
Which part of the small intestine has little pliegues circulares?
Ileum
218
What lymphatic nodes drain:
a) Foregut?
b) Midgut?
c) Hindgut?
a) Coeliac node
b) Superior mesenteric node
c) Inferior mesenteric node
219
What are the 3 main structural features of the large intestine?
```
Teniae coli - 3 longitudinal strips, thickening of longitudinal muscle of muscularis externa
Haustra - sac-like divisions
Epiploic appendages (Omentus appendages) - fat-filled pouches
```
220
What is a diverticula?
Outpouching of gut wall of muscularis in LI
| Common in sigmoid colon
221
What does the large intestine absorb and where does it start and end?
Absorbs H2O + electrolytes
| Starts caecum + end upper half anal canal
222
Where is the vermiform appendix attached to?
Attached to caecum
223
Where is the initial pain of appendicitis and where does it move to?
Umbilical region
| Right iliac fossa when infection of inflamed appendix reaches parietal peritoneum
224
Where is Mcburney's point and where is the maximal appendix pain?
Line drawn from anterior, superior iliac spine to umbilicus
| 2/3 down from umbilicus
225
Where do the preganglionic nerves arise from for the:
a) Foregut?
b) Midgut?
c) HIndgut?
a) T5-T9 ==> coeliac ganglion
b) T10-T12 ==> mesenteric ganglion
c) T12, L1-2 ==> inferior mesenteric ganglion
226
In the gut, does symp/parasymp innervation promote gut movement?
Parasymp
227
What 5 endocrine organs produce hormones that are proteins + peptides?
```
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Parathyroid
GI tract
Pancreas
```
228
What organs produce steroid hormones?
Adrenal glands
Gonads
Placenta (e.g. oestrogen)
229
What is a monomeric receptor?
Single unit crosses plasma M e.g. EGF receptor
230
What is a multimeric receptor?
Several membrane spanning subunits + extracellular subunits e.g. insulin receptor
231
How does blood reach the anterior pituitary glands?
Via capillary loops though either long/shrt hypophyseal portal vessels
232
What are the 5 types of endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary glands?
```
Gonadotroph cells
Corticotroph cells
Somatotroph cells
Lactotroph cells
Thyrotroph cells
```
233
What 2 features are involved in the control anterior pituitary?
Release of hypothalamic hypophysiotropic hormones
| Feedback by target gland hormones
234
Which part of the pituitary is connected to the hypothalamus and what is it's posh name?
Posterior Pituitary - Neurohypophysis
235
Which part of the pituitary is non-neuronal and what is it's posh name?
Anterior pituitary - Adenohypophysis
236
What are the 2 parts of the posterior pituitary?
Infundibulum
| Pars nervosa
237
What are the 3 parts of the anterior pituitary?
Pars tuberalis
Pars distalis
Pars intermedia
238
What is the shape of the adrenal gland on the :
a) Right kidney?
b) Left kidney?
a) Pyramidal
| b) Crescent
239
What are the 3 cell zones in the adrenal cortex?
Zona glomerulosa - salt, mineralocorticoids - aldosterone
Zona fasciculata - sugar, glucocorticoids - cortisol
Zona reticularis - sex, sex steroids (some gluco)
240
What is the release of mineralocorticoids regulated by?
Renin/anngiotensin
241
What is the release of glucocorticoids regulated by?
ACTH
242
What hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete?
Cholamines
80% adrenaline
20% noradrenaline
243
What are the 4 main types in the islet of Langerhans and what do they secrete?
Alpha cells - 20% glucagon
Beta cells - 70% insulin
Delta cells - 5-10% somatostatin
F/pp cells - 1-2% pancreatic polypep
244
What is the medial arcuate ligament?
Under diaphragm, goes around aorta
| Connects diaphragm to spine
245
Where does the quadratus lumborum attach to?
| Innervation?
Attaches to 12th rib + arises from iliac crest of hip bone
Stabilises 12th rib during breathing
L1, 2, 3
246
Where does the psoas major attach to?
| Innervation?
Arise from vertebral bodies + intervertebral discs of L1-L5
| Runs down in front of hip joint, attaches to lesser trochanter, main flexor of hip joint
247
Where does the iliacus attach to?
| Innervation?
```
Inside iliac fossa + joins psoas major
Unites to form iliopsoas tendon + inserts into lesser trochanter
Femoral nerve (L2, 3)
```
248
What is the psoas major covered by?
Psoas sheath
249
What nerve passes through middle of psoas major?
Genitofemoral nerve
250
What vertebral level does abdominal aorta bifurcate?
L4
251
What vertebral level does vena cava form by merging of veins?
L5
252
What is the difference between the ureter and the urethra?
Ureter - drains urine from kidney to bladder
| Urethra - drains urine from bladder to outside body
253
What is the hilum of the kidney?
Where blood vessels, nerves, lymphatics enter
| Located transpyloric plane (L1)
254
From the capsule of the kidney, what are the layers going outwards?
(Kidney capsule), Perirenal fat, renal fascia, pararenal fat
255
What artery supplies the top of suprarenal glands?
Superior suprarenal arteries
| Branch from inferior phrenic artery
256
What artery supplies the bottom of the suprarenal glands?
Inferior suprarenal arteries
| Branch from venal arteries
257
Where does the middle suprarenal artery arise from?
Directly from abdominal aorta
258
What are the arteries called in the renal columns?
Interlobular arteries
259
What are the arteries in the cortex called?
Arcuate arteries
260
Where is the narrowest part of the ureter?
Junction between renal pelvis + ureter
| Pelvi-ureteric junction
261
What is the name of the junction where the ureter enters the posterior wall of bladder?
Ureterovesical junction
262
What are the 5 parts of the male urethra?
```
Preprostatic urethra
Prostatic urethra
Membranous urethra
Bulbous urethra
Spongy/penile urethra
```
263
When catheterising a male, what can the catheter initially get stuck in?
Navicular fossa
264
What is cystitis?
Inflammation of bladder
265
What are the muscles of the pelvic floor?
Levator ani
| Coccygeus muscle
266
What are the 3 muscle components of the levator ani?
Pubococcygeus - from pubis to around coccyx
Iliococcygeus - from ileum to around coccyx
Puborectalis - from pubis to around rectum
267
What is the urogenital hiatus?
Hole in puborectalis so urethra and vagina can pass through muscle
268
What do these sphincters surround?
a) Urethrovaginalis
b) External urethral sphincter
c) Compressor urethrae
a) Around both urethra and vagina
b) Around urethra (Male + Female)
c) Around front of urethra (Female)
269
Where is the paraurethral (Skene's) gland located?
In wall of female urethra
| Lubricate distal prt of urethra, urine flow freely
270
When does the internal urethral sphincter of the male contract and why?
During ejaculation
| Controls potential of semen entering from distal to proximal as semen highly nutritious so can cause infection
271
What is the pelvic course of the urethra in...
a) Males?
b) Females?
```
a)
Cross over external iliac artery
Cross over obliterated umbilical artery
Cross under ductus (vas) deferens
b)
Crosses over external iliac artery
Crosses over obliterated umbilical artery
Crosses under uterine artery
```
272
What muscle inside the bladder is folded and what is the name of the smooth area?
Detrusor muscle
| Trigone
273
What is supropubic catherisation?
Catheter pushed into bladder wall through anterior abdominal wall
274
What are the 4 joints in the pelvis?
Sacroiliac joint
Sacrococcygeal joint
Pubic symphysis
Lumbosacral joint
275
What is the angle of inclination of the....
a) Pelvic inlet?
b) Pelvic outlet?
a) 50-60 degrees with horizontal inferiorly
| b) 10-15 degrees to horizontal inferiorly
276
What is the name for a normal pelvic shape in...
a) Male?
b) Female?
a) Android
| b) Gynecoid
277
What is the name of a flat pelvis shape?
Platypelloid
| X do vaginal delivery
278
What is prolapse?
1/more of pelvic organs slip down from normal position + bulge into vagina
279
What is an episiotomy?
Deliberate unilateral incision of perineum + posterior vaginal wall
Bypass damage at perineum body
280
What is cryptorchidism?
Undescended testes
| X surgical intervention unless haven't descended by a year
281
What are the 3 fascia in the inguinal canal in males?
External spermatic fascia - aponeurosis of external oblique
Cremasteric - internal oblique
Internal spermatic fascia - transverse fascia
282
What are the 3 arteries in the inguinal canal in males?
Testicular
Cremasteric
Deferential artery
283
What are the 3 veins in the inguinal canal in males?
Pampiniform plexus + testicular vein
Cremasteric vein
Deferential vein
284
What are the 3 nerves in the inguinal canal in males?
Genital branch of the genitofemoral nerve
Ilioinguinal
Autonomic nerves
285
What are the contents of the inguinal canal in females?
Round ligament of uterus
Genital branch of genitofemoral branch
Ilioinguinal nerve
286
What are the seminiferous tubules?
In testes
Site of meiosis + synthesis of sperm
Made up of columnar Sertoli cells
287
What are Leydig cells?
Secrete testosterone
288
What are the 4 zones of the prostate gland?
Central zone
Peripheral zone
Fibromuscular zone
Transitional zone
289
Which zone of the prostate gland does hyperplasia occur?
Transitional zone
290
What are the erectile tissue in the penis?
Paired corpora cavernosa
| Corpus spongiosum
291
What is an ectopic pregnancy?
Where fertilised egg implants self outside womb
292
What are the 3 layers in the uterus?
Perimetrium
Myometrium (muscle layers)
Endometrium (lining is shed)
293
What is cleavage in embryology?
Series of rapid cell divisions without growth of embryo
| Follows immediately after fertilisation
294
What is gastrulation?
Process through which cells sort out to generate body plan
295
What are the germ layers established in gastrulation?
Endoderm
Mesoderm
Ectoderm
296
What is neurulation?
Formation of neural tube
297
What are the 4 divisions of the mesoderm?
Intermediate mesoderm
Chordamesoderm
Paraxial mesoderm
Lateral plate mesoderm
298
What type of cells synthesise elastic fibres?
Embryonic + juvenile fibroblasts
| Puberty stop making
299
How many cycles of stretch-recoil can elastin fibres endure before losing elasticity?
2 billion cycles
300
In the humerus, what is the...
a) Intertubercular groove
b) Deltoid tuberosity
a) Where bicep runs down
| b) Where deltoid muscle attaches
301
What is the tentorium cerebelli?
Extension of dura mater that holds brain in place so X move around much
302
What is...
a) oesophageal atresia
b) oesophageal fistulae
a) Gap between proximal and distal oesophagus
| b) Extra connection of oesophagus to lower prt of trachea
303
What percentage of groin hernias are inguinal?
95%
304
How many peripheral nerves in spine?
```
Cranial - 12 pairs (Vagus is 10)
Cervical - 8 pairs
Thoracic - 12 pairs
Lumbar - 5 pairs
Sacral - 5 pairs
Coccygeal - 1 pair
```
305
What shape classification would be used to describe the hip bone?
Flat
306
Which plane divides the body into superior and inferior parts?
Horizontal
307
Where do direct and indirect hernias occur in relation to inferior epigastric artery?
Direct - medial to inf epigastric artery
| Indirect - lateral to inf epigastric artery
