full review - bio mcat Flashcards
nucleoid region is the
DNA region in prokaryotes
nucleolus makes
ribosomes
where is the nucleolus?
sits in nucleus, no membrane
peroxisomes collect and…
break down material
rough ER accepts
mRNA to make proteins
covered in ribosomes
smooth ER function?
detox and makes lipids
golgi apparatus function?
modifies/distributes proteins
ONLY in eukaryotes
vesicular transport?
COPII –> FORWARD
COPI <— RETURN
cisternal maturation
vesicles travel in retrograde
new cis made
cis/medial/trans/exit
centrioles are…
9 groups of microtubules
pull chromosomes apart
lysosomes function?
demo and recycling center
made by golgi apparatus
single membrane
plasmids are found in…
prokaryotes
carry dna but NOT for survival
cytoskeleton is made of…
microfilaments
microtubules
intermediate filaments
microfilaments are made of…
actin
microtubules are made of
tubulin
intermediate filaments are made of
keratin = vimentin
desmin = lamin
types of tissue
epithelia
connective
simple epithelia
one layer
stratified epithelia
multiple layers
pseudostratified epithelia
one layer
looks like multiple, but really just ONE
cuboidal epithelia
cube shape
columnar epithelia
long and narrow
squamous epithelia
flat, scale-like
connective tissue comprised of 5 things
strome (support/extracellular matrix)
bone
cartilage
tendon
blood
obligate aerobe bacterial requires
oxygen
obligate anaerobe
dies in oxygen
facultative anaerobe toggle b/w…
aerobic and anaerobic
aerotolerant anaerobe does not…..
use oxygen but tolerates it
gram positive bacteria is….
PURPLE
thick peptidoglycan/lipoteichoic acid cell wall
gram negative bacteria is…
PINK-RED (safarin)
thin peptidoglycan cell wall and outer membrane
bacteria shapes
bacilli (rod)
cocci (sphere)
spirilla (spiral)
genetic recombination steps
transformation
conjugation
transduction
transposons
transformation gets…
genetic info from environment
conjugation is the transfer of…
genetic info via conjugation bridge
F+ –> F- or Hfr –> recepient
transduction uses…
bacteriophage for transfer
transposons have genetic info that can…
insert/remove themselves
eukaryote
ETC in mitochrondria
large ribosomes
reproduce via mitosis
prokaryote
ETC in cell membrane
small ribosomes
no nucleus
reproduce via binary fission
plasmids carry DNA material
plasmids that integrate into genome are….
EPISOMES
prions are…
infectious proteins
prions trigger…
misfolding such as alpha-helical –> beta-plated sheet
lowered solubility
viroid
plant pathogens
capsid is the
protein coat on a virus
envelope in viruses
some viruses have a lipid envelope
viral genome may be…
DNA or RNA
single or double stranded
virion
individual virus particles
bacteriophages
bacteria virus
tail sheath injects DNA/RNA
if virus is single-stranded, explain pos and neg senses
positive sense: can be translated by host cell
neg sense: RNA replicase must synthesize a complimentary strand –> translated
retrovirus
single stranded RNA
reverse transcriptase needed to make DNA
e.g. HIV
bacteriophage life cycles
lytic or lysogenic
lytic life cycle
virions made until cell lyses
lysogenic life cycle
virus integrates into genome as provirus / prophage
goes dormant until stress activates it
general overview of cell cycle
G1
G0
G1 checkpt
G2
S
G2 checkpt
M
positive growth signals
1) CDK + cyclin create a complex
2) phosphorylate Rb to Rb + P
3) Rb changes shape, releases E2F
4) cell division continues
CDK = cyclin-dependent kinase
negative growth signals
1) CDK inhibitors block phosphorylation of Rb
2) so E2F stays attached
3) cell cycle halts
E2F = regulate expressions of genes in G1 and S phases
sex is determined by
23rd pair of chromosomes
XX = female
XY = male
x-linked disorders
males express, females can be carriers
y-chromosomes
little genetic info
SRY gene = sorry you’re male
semen is
sperm + seminal fluid
what makes viscous fluid to clean out urethra?
bulbourethral glands
what do seminal vesicles and the prostate gland do?
make alkaline fluid to help sperm survive acidic environment of female reproductive tract
SEVE(N) UP is the
sperm pathway mnemonic
Seminiferous tubules
Epididymis
Vans deferens
Ejaculatory duct
Urethra
Penis
site of spermatogenesis?
seminiferous tubules
nourished by sertoli cells
epidiymis stores…
sperm
sperm gain motility
vans deferens function?
raise/lower testes
mitosis
PMAT: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase
ploidy of 2n throughout
prophase - mitosis
DNA condenses
centrioles migrate to opp poles
microtubules form
nuclear envelope disappears
metaphase - mitosis
chromosomes “meet in the middle”
anaphase - mitosis
sister chromatids separate and move to opp poles
telophase - mitosis
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane forms
cytokinesis occurs
meiosis overview
PMAT x2
ploidy goes from 2n to n
what is nondisjunction?
when sister chromatids don’t separate properly during anaphase
results in aneuploidy
prophase I
chromosomes condense
nuclear membrane dissolves
homologous chromosomes form bivalents
crossing over occurs
metaphase I
spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes connect to bivalents (at centromeres)
align them along middle of the cell
anaphase I
homologous pairs move to opp poles of the cell
DISJUNCTION
accounts for law of segregation
telophase I
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane may reform
cell divides (cytokinesis)
two haploid daughter cells form –> cells are unequal sizes
prophase II
chromosomes condense
nucl membrane dissolves
centrosomes move to opp poles (perpendicular to before)
metaphase II
spindle fibers from opposing centrosomes attach to chromosomes (at centromere)
align them along cell equator
anaphase II
spindle fibers contract and separate sister chromatids
chromatids (now chromosomes) move to opp poles
telophase II
chromosomes decondense
nuclear membrane reforms
cell divide (cytokinesis) to form 4 HAPLOID DAUGHTER CELLS
ovaries have follicles that produce….
ova
controlled by FSH and LH
oogenesis
production of female gametes
estrogen is the response to
FSH that develops reproductive tract, thickens uterine wall
progesterone is the response to
LH
maintains/protects endometrium
“estrogen establishes / progresterone protects the endometrium”
pathway for female reproductive system
egg
peritoneal sac
fallopian tube/oviduct
GnRH is
gonadotropin-releasing hormones
FSH is the
follicle stimulating hormones
what does the FSH do
in males: triggers spermatogenesis, stimulates sertoli cells
females: stimulates development of ovarian follicles
LH is the
lutenizing hormones
LH in males/females
males: causes interstitial cells to make testosterone
females: induces ovulation
fertilization —>
morula
blastula
gastrulation
neurulation
fertilization occurs in the
ampulla of fallopian tube
during fertilization, sperm’s acrosomal enzymes penentrate…
corona radiate and zona pellucia
after corona radiate/zona pellucia are pentrated…
acrosomal enzymes inject pronucleus
during fertilization, cortical rxn releases Ca2+ which depolarizes the…
ovum membrane and makes it impenetrable
what is a morula?
early solid mass of cells
blastula implants in the
endometrial lining
fluid filled blastocoel
trophoblast becomes the
chorion / placenta
inner cell mass –>
organism
archenteron leads to….
blastopore during gastrulation
what forms during gastrulation?
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm
ectoderm forms
the nervous system, skin, hair, nails, mouth, anus
“attract-oderm” –> skin/hair are things people are attracted to
mesoderm forms
muscoskeleton, circulatory system, gonads, adrenal cortex
“move-oderm” –> involved in moving things such as muscles, RBC, steroids
endoderm forms
endocrine glands, GI tract, respiratory tract, bronchi, bladder, stomach
“in-doderm” –> things are INSIDE
during neurulation:
mesoderm develops a (x) then (x) induces (y)
x = notochord
y = ectoderm
ectoderm –> neural folds….
–> neural tube
neural folds –> neural crest cells –> PNS
neural tube –> CNS
totipotent stem cells:
“total”
can be any type of cell
pluripotent stem cells can be any cell except…
those found in placental structures
multipotent stem cells are
more specialized
can be multiple types of cells
adult stem cells are…..
multipotent and require treatment w/ transcription factors
fetal hemoglobin (HbF)
increased oxygen affinity than HbA (adult hemoglobin)
oxygen and co2 exchange via diffusion
umbilical vein transports…
oxygen from
PLACENTA to the baby
umbilical artery brings…
oxygen away from the baby towards placenta
twins
fraternal = dizygotic
identical = monzygotic
cell specialization:
determination
differentiation
cell determination:
cell commits to becoming a certain type of cell
cell differentiation follows
determination
selectively transcribe genes appropriate for cell’s specific function
induction is when
a group of cells influence the fate of nearby cells
types of cell signaling
autocrine
paracrime
juxtacrine
endocrine
fetal shunts that skip lungs
foramen ovale: R atrium –> L atrium
ductus arteriousus: pulmonary artery –> artery
fetal shunts that skip liver
umbilical vein –> inferior vena cava
afferent neurons
Ascend spinal cord
sensory neurons that bring signals to CNS
interneurons are
between other neurons
efferent neurons
Exit spinal cord
motor neurons
goes away from the CNS
temporal summations
same space / different time
spatial summations
different space / same time
glial cells
astrocytes
ependymal cells
microglia
schwann cells
oligendrocytes
astrocytes form the
blood-brain barrier
controls solutes moving from bloodstream to nervous tissue
ependymal cells form the
barrier b/w cerebrospinal fluid and the interstitial fluid of the CNS
microglia function
digest waste in CNS
schwann cells are in the
PNS and make myelin
oligendrocytes are in the
CNS and make myelin
white matter:
myelinated sheaths
grey matter:
cell bodies and dendrites
unmyelinated
brain has what white and grey matter in…
white matter - inside
grey matter - outer
where is the white and grey matter in the spinal cord?
grey matter inside
white matter outside
monosynaptic reflex arc
sensory neuron –> motor neuron
polysynaptic reflex arc
sensory neuron –> interneuron –> motor
what is the CNS comprised of
brain and spinal cord
PNS is comprised of
somatic and peripheral nervous systems
somatic nervous system is
voluntary
sensory (afferent)
motor (efferent)
autonomic nervous system is divided into
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
sympathetic nervous system
flight or flight
bronchi relax
bp increase
decreased peristalsis
neurotransmitters in sympathetic nervous system
preganglionic: acetylcholine
postganglionic: epi / norepi
preganglionic neuron travels from its
origin in brain or spinal cord —> ganglion
ganglion = collection of cytons outside cns
postganglionic neuron begins in and travels from
ganglion to the
smooth muscle/gland being innervated
parasympathetic NS
rest and digest
reduce bronchi
conserve energy
increase persistalsis
parasympathetic NS neurotransmitters
preganglionic: acetylcholine
postganglionic: acetylcholine
neurotransmitter removed from synaptic cleft via either
breakdown by enzymes
reuptake
diffusion out of cleft
what are peptide hormones made of
AAs
peptide hormones formation
1) cleaved from larger polypeptide
2) golgi modifies and activates hormone
3) put in vesicles released via exocytosis
4) polar - can’t pass through membrane so GPCR (extracellular receptor) is used
common 2nd messengers: cAMP, Ca2+, IP3
example of peptide hormones
insulin
steroid hormones are made in the
gonads and adrenal cortex
from cholesterol
steroid hormones don’t dissolve, they must be….
carried by proteins
they are nonpolar
steroid hormones activate
nuclear receptors
and directly act on DNA
steroid hormones example
estrogen / testosterone / cortisol
amino acid-derivative hormones share traits from
both peptide and steroid hormones
e.g. catecholamines use GPCR, thyroxine bind intracellularly
GPCR
g-protein coupled receptor
epinephrine is a
ligand 1st messenger
at the end of the GPCR process…
phosphodiesterase deactivates cAMP
GTP hydrolyzed back to GDP
direct hormones act directly on
target tissue / organ
e.g. insulin
tropic hormones require an
intermediary
only affect other endocrine tissues
examples of tropic hormones
GnRH
LH
type 1 diabetes
no insulin
glucose can’t enter cells
type 2 diabetes
desensitized insulin receptor
glucose is unable to enter cells
air pathway
nose
pharynx
larynx
trachea
bronchi
bronchioles
alveoli
what happens in the pharynx
food / air travels through
air is warmed / humidified
larynx takes only…
air in
epiglottis covering
contains vocal cords
trachea has ciliated….
epithelium that collect debris
bronchi connects…
windpipe to lungs
bronchioles
the smallest of the branches of the bronchi
alveoli are
sacs where diffusion occurs
surfactant reduces surface tension
prevents collapse
pulmonary veins + oxygen bring
oxygen from lungs to heart
pulmonary artery brings oxygen from
heart to lungs
what happens during inhalation?
neg pressure breathing
active process
diaphragm + external intercostal muscles contract
intracellular space increases, thoracic cavity increase, pressure decreases
increase lung volume, decrease lung pressure
air rushes in
exhalation is a (what) process, muscles (do what)
what happens to lung volume and pressure
passive process
muscles relax
lung vol decrease, increase lung pressure
air leaves lungs
active exhalation
internal intercostal + abd muscles help force air out
spirometer measures
lung capacity
can not measure total volume
total lung capacity
max vol of air in lungs
residual volume
residual after exhalation
air stays in lungs to keep alveoli from collapsing
vital capacity
difference b/w minimum and maximum volume of air in the lungs
tidal volume
volume inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath
expiratory reserve volume
volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled following normal exhalation
inspiratory reserve volume
volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled following normal inhalation
vibrissae is…
in the pharynx
protects from pathogens
lysosomes are in the…
nasal cavity/saliva
attack gram POSITIVE peptidoglycan
mast cells function
antibiotics on surface
inflammation
allergic rxns
what else serves as protection from pathogens?
mucous membranes
mucocillary escalation
what happens to the bicarbonate buffer when pH decreases
increased respiration to blow off carbon dioxide
what happens to the bicarbonate buffer when pH increases?
decreased respiration
traps carbon dioxide
what happens to the medulla oblongata when carbon dioxide increases
increased respiration (exchanging gases)
what happens to the medulla oblongata when the oxygen lowers?
hypoxemia
increased ventilation (air in/out)
electrical conduction pathway
SA node (Pacemaker) –> AV node –> Bundle of His –> Purkinje fibers
“Stab A Big Pickle”
blood pressure
systole / diastole
systole
ventricular contraction, AV valves close
diastole
ventricular relaxation, SV close, blood atria –> ventricles
normal BP range
90/60 to 120/80
what is BP maintained by?
baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
what can reduce blood pressure?
increased ANP (atrial natriuretic peptide)
lower BP causes which hormones to increase
increased aldosterone
increased anti-diuretic hormone (vasopressin)
when blood osmolarity increases, what hormone is released
ADH (anti-diuretic hormone)
cardiac output =
heart rate x stroke volume
CO = HR x SV
arteries are
thick/muscular/elastic
allow for recoil and propel blood forward
arterioles
small muscular arteries
capillaries are….
1 cell thick endothelial wall
easy diffusion of gases (o2, co2) and waste (NH3, urea)
veins are
thin/inelastic
may stretch to accommodate blood but NO recoil
surrounding muscles help pump blood through
contains valves
what are venules?
small veins
what are antigens?
surface proteins on RBCs
Rh factor is
protein that is found on the surface of RBCs
Rh+ is dominant
erythrocytes are formed in the
bone marrow
AKA red blood cells (RBCs)
NO nucleus/mitochondria/organelles
contain hemoglobin to carry oxygen
blood is considered a
connective tissue
thrombocytes are…
aka platelets
cell fragments
allow for coagulation
hydrostatic pressure moves fluid out of the blood vessel and into the…
interstitial fluid around it
osmotic pressure is the pressure generated by solutes as they…
draw water into the bloodstream
oxygen is carried by
hemoglobin
carbon dioxide is carried by
hemoglobin (sometimes)
most exist in bloodstream as bicarbonate HCO3- (buffer)
when the endothelial lining of a blood vessel is damaged…
the collagen and tissue factor underlying the endothelial cells are exposed
prothrombin –>
thrombin
fibrinogen –>
fibrin
what breaks down clots?
plasmin
innate immunity have defenses that are always….
active but are NON-SPECIFIC
e.g. skin/mucus/stomach acid/tears/etc
adaptive immunity are defenses that…
take time to activate and are SPECIFIC to the invader
skin, mucus, lysozyme and what else are part of non-cellular innate immune system?
complement system
interferons
explain why skin is an innate defense
physical barrier
secretes antimicrobial enzymes like DEFENSINS
mucus function in innate immune system
on mucus membranes
traps pathogens in
in respiratory system –> mucous is propelled upward by cilia via MUCOCILARY ESCALATOR
lysozymes are found in
in tears and saliva
antimicrobial compound
innate immune system
complement system can punch holes in…
bacteria’s cell walls
osmotically unstable –> lysis
triggers opsonization
inteferons are given off by
virally infected cells
InterFERE w/ viral replication + dispersion
macrophages, MHC-I, MHC-II and what else are part of cellular innate defenses
dendritic cells
natural killer cells
granulocytes
macrophages ingest pathogens and present them on….
MHC-II and secrete cytokines
MHC-1 is present in all
nucleated cells
displays endogenous antigen to cytotoxic CD8+ T-cells
MHC-II is present in…
professional antigen-presenting cells
display exogenous antigen to help CD4+ T-cells
e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells, some B-cells, certain activated epithelial cells
dendritic cells are
antigen-presenting cells in skin
natural killer cells attack cells low on….
MHC including virally infected cells and cancer cells
granulocytes - innate immune system
neutrophils
eosinophil
basophils
neutrophils are activated by
bacteria
conduct phagocytosis
eosinophil is activated by
parasites and allergens
increase histamines
basophils are activated by allergens and inhibit…
blood clotting
humoral immunity centers on antibody production by…
B-cells
kills antigens while they are floating around in the fluid (humor)
B-cells aka B-lymphocytes are made/mature in…
bone marrow
antibodies (Ig) are produced by
plasma cells which are activated by b-cells
target antigens
hypermutation is the mutation of the
antigen binding site on an antibody
results in varrying affinities of antibodies for a specific microbe
5 diff isotypes (IgM, IgD, IgG, IgE, IgA)
opsonization is antibodies marking….
pathogens for destruction
agglutination is when
pathogens clump together into insoluble complexes
caused by opsonizing pathogens
memory b-cells lie in wait for a
2nd exposure to pathogen
2ndary response is more rapid and vigorous
humoral immunity includes:
b-cells, antibodies, hypermutation and…
opsonization
agglutination
memory b cells
cell-mediated (cytotoxic) immunity centers on
T cells
responds to cells once they have been infected by the antigen
cell-mediated immunity include:
t cells, pos/neg selection, helper t-cells, cytotoxic t-cells, suppressor t-cells, memory t-cells and…
autoimmune conditions
allergic rxns
immunization
passive immunity
t-cells
aka t-lymphocytes
made in bone marrow, mature in thymus
coordinate immune system and directly kill infected cells
cell-mediated immunity
positive/negative selection
maturation of t-cells
faciliated by thymosin
occurs in thymus
positive selection - adaptive immunity
mature IN ONLY t-cells that respond to the presentation of antigen on MHC
posiTive - t cells
negative selection (part of adaptive immunity)
causes apoptosis in t-cells that are self-reactive
helper t-cells
Th or CD4+
respons to antigen on MHC-II
coordinate rest of immune system
secretes lymphotkines to activate immune defense
Th1 secrete
interferon gamma
Th2 activates b cells in
parasitic infection
cytotoxic t-cells
aka Tc, CTL, or CD8+
“killer cells”
respond to antigen on MCH-1 and kills virally infected cells
suppressor t-cells
aka Treg
down-regulate immune response after an infection + promote self-tolerance
defective suppressor t-cells –> leading to autoimmune conditions
memory t-cells serve a similar function to
memory b-cells
autoimmune conditions
a self-antigen is recognized as foreign
then immune system attacks normal cells
allergic rxns occur when
nonthreatening exposures incite an inflammatory response
immunization induces….
active immunity
activation of b-cells that produce antibodies
passive immunity is the transfer of
antibodies to an individual
e.g. breast milk
what is the lymphatic system?
circulatory system that consists of one-way vessels w/ intermittent lymph nodes
lymphatic system provides for
mounting immune responses
lymphatic system connects to the…
cardiovascular system via the thoracic duct in the posterior chest
lymphatic system equalizes fluid distribution and….
transports fats / fat-soluble compounds in chylomicrons
edema results when the lymphatic system is overwhelmed…
and can’t drain excess fluid from tissues
intracellular digestion is the oxidation of….
glucose and fatty acids to make energy
extracellular digestion is the process by which
nutrients are obtained from food
occurs in alimentary canal
mechanical digestion is the
physical breakdown of large food molecules into smaller particles
chemical digestions is the enzymatic cleavage of…
chemical bonds
such as peptide bonds in protein or the glycosidic bonds of starches
peristalsis is the rhythmic contractions of the….
gut tube
increase parasympathetic NS
decrease sympathetic NS
feeding behavior hormones
ADH + aldosterone: increase thirst
glucagon + ghrelin: increase hunger
leptin + CCK: increase satiety
what is the duodenum?
first part of small intenstine
basic (pH = 8.5)
site of majority of chem digestion
enzymes in duodenum
disaccharidases
aminopeptidase + dipeptidase
enteropeptidase
disaccharidases are brush-border enzymes that break down….
maltose, isomaltose, lactose, sucrose into monosaccharides
aminopeptidase + dipeptidase are
brush-border peptidases
enteropeptidase activates
trypsinogen and procarboxypeptidases
hormones in duodenum
secretin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
secretin is a
peptide hormone
stimulated release of pancreatic juices and slows motility
cholecystokinin stimulates bile release from
gallbladder
release of pancreatic juices and satiety
digestive pathway
oral cavity
pharynx
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
rectum
what happens in the oral cavity
mastication (starts mech digestion)
salivary amylase + lipase start chem digestion of food
food is formed into a bolus + swallowed
the pharynx connects the mouth to the
esophagus
epiglottis prevents food from entering the larynx
esophagus propels food to the stomach using….
peristalsis
top third of esophagus has skeletal…
muscle and is under somatic control
bottom third of esophagus has
smooth muscle
under autonomic control
middle third of esophagus has combo of both
skeletal and smooth muscles
under autonomic control
stomach has what kind of pH
acidic pH (pH = 2)
four parts of the stomach
fundus
body
antrum
pylorus
pepsin breaks down
proteins
pepsin is an enzyme
secretory cells lining stomach
mucous cells
chief cells
parietal cells
g-cells
mucous cells produce
bicarbonate-rich mucus to protect stomach wall from acid
chief cells secrete
pepsinogen (a protease activated by the acidic environment)
parietal cells secrete
HCl and intrinsic factor (needed for vitamin B-12 absorption)
g-cells secrete
gastrin
gastrin is a peptide hormone that increase HCl secretion and gastric motility
after processing in the stomach, food particles are now….
chyme
chyme exits through pyloric sphincter into –>
DUODENUM
jejunum and ileum of the small intestine are primarily involved in
absorption
small intestine is lined w/ villi (covered with microvilli)
each villi is comprised of
capillary bed: absorbs water-soluble nutrients
lacteal: absorbs fat, sends to lymphatic system
large intestine absorbs
water and salts, forms feces
vitamin absorption
fat-soluble: only A, D, E, K enter lacteal
water-soluble: all others enter plasma directly
cecum is the
outpocketing that accepts fluids from small intestine thru the ileocecal valve
site of attachment of the appendix
colon structure
ascending / transverse / descending / sigmoid
gut bacteria produces which vitamins
vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7)
accessory organs originate from
endoderm
pancreas contain acinar cells which produce pancreatic juices that contain:
bicarbonate
pancreatic amylase
pancreatic peptidases
pancreatic lipase
liver synthesizes
bile, albumin, clotting factors
process nutrients
detox (NH3 –> urea) as well as alcohol and drugs
liver receives blood from the…
abd portion of the digestive tract via hepatic portal vein
gallbladder stores and concentrates
bile
CCK stimulates bile release into….
billary tree which merges w/ pancreatic duct
excretory (urine) pathway
bowman’s space
proximal convoluted tubule
descending limb of the loop of Henle
ascending limb of the loop of Henle
distal convoluted tubule
collecting duct
renal pelvis
ureter
bladder
urethra
kidney contains
a cortex and medulla
kidney produces urine which dumps into ureter at the….
renal pelvis
urine then collects in the bladder until excreted through the urethra
nephron is the functioning unit of the
kidney
renal portal system is comprised of
two capillary beds in series (glomeruli + nephron)
blood flow (via renal portal system)
renal artery
afferent arterioles
glomureli
efferent arteriole
vasa recta (surround nephron)
renal vein
filtration via kidney
bowman’s capsule moves solutes from blood –> filtrate
filtration direction and rate are determined by
hydrostatic and oncotic pressure differentials b/w glomerulus and bowman’s space
secretion is the movement of solutes from blood to
filtrate anywhere other than Bowman’s capsule
reabsorption is the movement of
solutes from filtrate to blood
pH can be regulated by the kidney with…
bicarbonate and H+
aldosterone is the (what hormone) made in where
steroid hormone made in the adrenal cortex in response to angiotensin 2 or high K+
derived from cholesterol
aldosterone increases
Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
increases water reabsorption
increased BP, no change in blood osmolarity (RESULT)
ADH (vasopressin) is a peptide hormone synthesized by
hypothalamus and released by posterior pituitary
increase permeability of collecting duct to water which water reabsorbs
result: increased BP and decreased blood osmolarity, concentrated urine
proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) is the site of
bulk reabsorption of glucose, AA, solube vitamins, salt, water
site of secretion for H+, K+, NH3, urea
descending limb of the loop of henle is permeable to….
water but NOT salt
filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla
water is reabsorbed from filtrate
contercurrent multiplier system
vasa recta and nephron flow in opp directions
creating a countercurrent multiplier system
allows maximal reabsorption of water
ascending limb of the loop of henle is permeable to
salt but NOT water
salt is reabsorbed passively/actively
the diluting segment is in the outer medulla b/c
salt is actively reabsorbed in this site
filtrate becomes hypotonic compared to the blood
distal convoluted tubule (DCT) is responsive to
aldosterone
site of salt reabsorption + waste product excretion like the PCT
collecting duct is responsive to both
aldosterone and ADH
has variable permeability
allows reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on body’s needs
detrusor muscle is the
muscular lining of the bladder
parasympathetic control
internal urethral sphincter is made of
smooth muscle
parasympathetic control
external urethral sphincter is made of
skeletal muscle
voluntary muscle
skin layers
epidermis
dermis
hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
epidermis - types of cells/layers
stratum basale
stratum spinosum
startum granulosum
stratum luciderm
stratum corneum
stratum basal
stem cells –> keratinocytes
stratum spinosum
lagerhans cells
stratum granulosum
keratinocytes die
stratum luciderm
only on thick, hairless skin
stratum corneum
multi thin layers, flat keratinocytes
langerhans cells are macrophages that are
antigen-presenting cells in skin
melanin is produced by
melanocytes
protects skin from DNA damages caused by ultraviolet radiation
dermis is which layers
papillary and reticular layers
merkel cells are responsible for
deep pressure + texture
free nerve endings are responsible
for pain
meissner’s corpuscles are responsible for
light touch
ruffini endings are responsible for
stretching
pacinian corpuscles are responsible for
deep pressure and vibration
hypodermis is the
fat and connective tissue
connects skin to body
thermoregulation is responsible for
sweating
piloerection
shivering
vasodillation/vasoconstriction
sweating is
evaporative cooling
piloerection is
warming
shivering is
warming
vasodillation/vasoconstriction
cool/warm
skeletal muscles function
support + movement, blood propulsion, thermoregulation, striated
voluntary (somatic) control
multinucleated
red fibers
skeletal muscle
slow twitch / support / carry out oxidative phosphorylation
white fibers is part of what kind of muscle
skeletal muscle
fast-twitch
active / anaerobic metabolism
smooth muscle is found in which systems
respiratory, reproductive, cardiovascular, digestive systems
involuntary (autonomic) control
uninucleated
can display myogenic activity w/o neural input
cardiac muscle is the
contractile tissue of the heart
involuntary (autonomic) contro
uninucleated (sometimes binucleated)
skeletal system is derived from
mesoderm
axial skeleton is comprised of the
skulls
vertebral column
ribcage
hyoid bone
appendicular skeleton is comprised of
bones of limbs, pectoral girdle, pelvis
compact bone function
strength and density
spongy bone (cancellous) is the
lattice-like structure of bony spicules known as trabeculae
cavities filled w/ bone marrow
bone marrow
red: filled with hemtopoietic stem cells
yellow: fat
long bones are shafts called
DIAPHYSIS that flare to form metaphyses
terminate in epiphyses
epiphyses contain
epiphyseal (growth) palte
periosterum is the
connective tissue surrounding bone
ligaments attach bones
to other bones
tendons attach bones to
muscles
bone matrix is comprised of
osteons which are the primary structural unit of compact bone
osteons are the chief structural unit of compact bone consisting of……
concentric bone layers called lamellae
lamellae surround a long hollow passageway called
the Haversian canal
b/w concentric rings are lacunae where
osteocytes reside connected with cancaliculi
bone remodeling cells
osteoblasts build bone
osteroclasts reabsorb bone
during bone remodeling, parathyroid hormone
increases resorption of bone and blood calcium
during bone remodeling, vitamin D increases…
reabsorption of bone and blood calcium
during bone remodeling, calcitonin increases…
bone formation, decrease blood calcium in blood
cartilage is
firm and elastic
matrix is chondrin
secreted by chondrocytes
avascular + NOT innervated
immovable joints are formed together to form
sutures
movable joints are strengthened by
ligaments and contains a synovial capsule
synovial fluid is secreted by
synovium
lubricated joints
bones form from cartilage through
endochondral ossification
skull bones form directly from
mesenchyme in intramembranous ossification
sarcomeres are basic
contractile unit of striated muscule
THICK myosin and THIN actin filmanets
troponin and tropomyosin found on the thin filament and
regulate actin-myosin interaction
Z lines define the
boundary of each sarcomere
M line is the
middle of sarcomere
I-band is only the
actin filaments
H-zone is filled only with the
myosin filaments
A-band contains both
actin and myosin
only part that maintains a constant size during contraction
sarcomeres attach end-to-end to become
myofibrils
each myocyte contains many myofibrils
sarcoplasmic reticulum is filled with
Ca2+
and is a modified endoplasmic reticulum
sarcolemma is the
cell membrane of a myocyte
t-tubules is connected to
sarcolemma and carried signals
contraction begins at the
neuromuscular junction
efferent neurons releases acetylcholine that binds to
receptors on the sacrolemma, causing depolarization
depolarization spreads down the sarcolemma to
T-tubules, triggering the Ca2+ release
Ca2+ binds to troponin, causing a shift in tropomyosin and
exposure of the myosin-binding sites on the acting filament
shortening of the sarcormere occurs as myosin heads…
bind to the exposed sites on actin
forms cross bridges and pulls the actin filament along the thick filament
“sliding filament model”
muscles relax when acetylcholine is
degraded by acetylcholinesterase
terminated signal and allows Ca2+ to return to the SR (sarcoplasmic reticulum)
ATP binds to myosin head, allowing it to release from
actin
simple twitch
single muscle fiber responds to brief stimulus
frequency summation is the addition of multiple…
simple twitches before muscle fully relaxes
oxygen debt is the difference b/w
oxygen needed and the oxygen present
creatine phosphate adds a
phosphate group to ADP, forming ATP
myoglobin is a heme-containing protein that
is a muscular oxygen reserve
what are alleles?
alt form of a gene
dominant allel only requires
1 copy in order to be expressed
recessive allele requires
two copies in order to be expressed
genotype is the combination of
alleles one has at a given locus
homozygous genotype
have two of the same allele
heterozygous genotype
having two diff alleles
phenotype
observable manifestation of a genotype
complete dominance
only one dominant allele
codominance
more than one dominant allele
incomplete dominance
no dominant alleles
heterozygotes have intermediate phenotypes
penetrance is the proportion of individuals carrying a
particular allele that also express an associated phenotype
expressivity is the
varying phenotypic outcomes of a genotype
genetic leakage is the flow of genes b/w…
species via hybrid offspring
genetic drift is when the composition of the
gene pool changes and a result of chance
founder effect:
bottlenecks that suddenly isolate a small population
INBREEDING
taxonomic system
King Philip Came Over From Great Spain
Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
point mutations is the substituting of
one nucleotide for another
frameshift mutations is moving the
3 letter reading frame
silent result of nucleotide mutations
no effect on protein
missense result of nucleotide mutations replace…..
one AA with another
nonsense result of nucleotide mutations
STOP codon replaces in an AA
insertion/deletion result of nucleotide mutations
shift in the reading frame
leading to a change in all downstream AAs
chromosomal mutations are
much larger mutations, affecting whole segments of DNA
deletion is a type of chromosomal mutation where
large segment of DNA is lost
duplication is when a segment of DNA is…
copied multiple times
inversion - chromosomal mutations
segment of DNA is reversed
insertion is a chromosomal mutation where a
segment of DNA is moved from one chromosome to another
translocation is a chromosomal mutation where a
segment of DNA is swapped with a segment of DNA from another chromosome
law of segregation is when an organism has
two alleles for each gene
segregated during Anaphase I
b/c of this gametes carry only one allele for a trait
law of independent assortment is the
inheritance of one allele does not influence the probability of inheriting a given allele for a diff trait
except for linked genes
punnett squares
monohybrid cross accounts for ONE gene
dihybrid crosses account for TWO genes
sex-linked cross is linked to the x-chromosome
recombination frequency is the likelihood of
two alleles being separated during crossing over in mieosis
farther = increased likelihood of separation
hardy-weinberg principle is if a population meets certain criteria then allele…
frequencies will remain constant
hardy-weinberg equation
P + q = 1
P^2 + 2Pq + q^2 = 1
P = dominant allele fre
q = recessive allele freq
griffith experiment
demonstrated transformation
heat-killed smooth (virulent) strain of bacteria still transformed rough strain into smooth
avery-macleod-mccarty experiment
degradation of DNA –> cessation of bacterial transformation
degradation of proteins did not
hershey-chase experiment
confirmed DNA is the genetic material b/c only radiolabeled DNA could be found in bacteriophage-infected bacteria
what is natural selection?
mechanism for evolution = natural seleection
modern synthesis model
neo-darwinism
mutation and recombination are mechanisms of variation
differential reproduction
inclusive fitness is where if a population meet certain criteria then…
the allele frequencies will remain constant
(aimed at a lack of evolution)
punctuated equilibrium considers evolution to be a very slow…
process w/ intermittent rapid bursts of evol activity
stabilizing selection is a mode of natural selection which
keeps phenotypes in a narrow range exclusing extremes
directional selection moves average phenotype…
toward an extreme
disruptive selection moves toward two phenotypes at the…
extremes
leads to speciation
mode of nat sel
adaptive radiation
rapid emergence of multiple species from a common ancestor (each has a niche)
isolation is when organisms are
reproductively isolated from each other by pre- or postzygotic mechanisms
molecular clock model is the degree of difference in the
genome b/w two species + is related to the amt of time since two species broke off from a common ancestor
what happens in G1
make mRNA and proteins to prep for mitosis
G0
a cell will enter G0 if division IS NOT NEEDED
G1 checkpt
cell decides if it should divide
p53 in charge
S stage
DNA replicated
G2
cell growth
makes organelles
G2 checkpoint
check cell size
organelles
M stage
mitosis and cyotkinesis
Rh- person will only create anti-Rh antibodies after….
exposure to Rh+ blood
induction is mediated by…
INDUCERS aka growth factors
b-cells are activated in…
spleen / lymph nodes
b-cells express…
antibodies on cell surface
COPII vesicles exports new synthesized…
secretory proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum/ER
COPI vesicles facilitate traffic from…
Golgi to the ER and intra-Golgi transport
glycolysis produces
2 NADH and 4 ATP
= 7 ATP total
1 pyruvate makes
1 NADH in the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
glucose forms how many pyruvates in the PDC
2 pyruvates
PDC generates a total of how many NADH per glucose molecule
2 NADH
how many ATP are made by PDC
5 atp
citric acid cycle products
6 NADH + 2 FADH2 + 2 GTP = 20 ATP
total energy produced from one glucose =
32 ATP
each NADH results in how many ATP
2.5 ATP
10 NADH –> 25 ATP
each FADH2 results in how many ATP
1.5 FADH2
2 FADH2 forms 3 ATP
oxidative phosphorylation includes
ETC and chemiosmosis
ETC occurs in where
eukaryotes: mitochondria
prokaryotes: cell membrane
inhibitors for citrate synthase
ATP
NADH
citrate
succinyl-CoA
activator for citrate synthase
ADP
isocitrate dehydrogenase is what kind of enzyme
rate limiting enzyme
inhibitors for isocitrate dehydrogenase
ATP and NADH
activators for isocitrate dehydrogenase
ADP and NAD+
inhibitors for alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
succinyl-CoA
NADH
ATP
activator for alpha-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex
ADP
citric acid cycle occurs where
eukaryotes: mitochondrial matrix
prokaryotes: cytoplasm
where does gluconeogenesis take place?
mainly in liver
and in kidney sometimes
where does glycolysis take place?
cytoplasm
how many carbons in glucose
6
how many carbons in pyruvate?
3 carbons
how many pyruvates produced by glycolysis?
2 pyruvates
homologous regions are areas of
protein/gene sequence similarity b/w organisms from same or different species
during replication, what attaches uncoupled dNTPS to the growing DNA strand?
DNA polymerase
each dNTP (dTTP, dATP, dCTP, dGTP) composed of
a base, a deoxyribose sugar, 3 phosphate (PO4) groups
what is a thymidine analog?
molecules can be incorporated into a growing DNA strand in place of thymidine which bonds to adenosine via 2 H bonds
bc of the AT/CG rule of complementary base pairing, a free dNTP…
enters the catalytic site of DNA polymerase and forms H bonds with a complementary nucleotide on the parent strand
the 3’ OH from the last nucleotide of the new growing strand
attacks the 5’ PO4 of the incoming dNTP
during cDNA cloning, an mRNA
is idenified in an organism
mRNA can be isolated and mixed with
complementary primers known as oligo(dT) primers (composed of thymine nucleotides)
primers bind mRNA 3’ poly-A tails and the enzyme…
reverse transcriptase uses dNTPs to generate SS DNA from target mRNAs
mRNA strand is degraded and resulting DNA is
amplified using DNA polymerase and PCR
restriction enzyme can cut DNA and
generate complementary sticky ends that anneal when molecules mix together
RNA polymerase function
synthesize various types of RNA but not used in cDNA cloning b/c mRNA is already present
x are a class of corticosteroids and include cortisol
glucocorticoids
released by adrenal cortex
what do mucous cells product to protect stomach wall from acid
bicarbonate rich mucus
what do chief cells in the stomach secrete
pepsinogen and gastric lipase
what does insulin do
signals liver, muscle, fat cells to take in glucose from the blood
insulin is secreted by what
beta islet cells of pancreas
parietal cells secrete what
HCl and intrinsic factor
what is the intrinsic factor needed for
vitamin b12 absorption
what does active immunity do
activate b cells that produce antibodies
episomes are
plasmids integrated into genome
examples of episomes
insertion sequences and transposons
viruses
F factor
how is cell membrane’s resting potential maintained
more K+ leak channels than Na+ channels
mire K+ will leave the cell compared to Na+ entering
negative charge inside
in an electrical synapse, there is a direct physical connection between
the presynaptic and post synaptic neuron
electric current in the form of ions flow
between cells
where does K+ leave through
voltage gated K+ channels and leak channels
gut microbiota produces
vitamin K and biotin (vitamin B7)
what are white blood cells involved in mainly
immune responses
recognize and neutralize invaders such as bacteria and viruses
first part of large intestine and outpocketing that accepts fluid from small intenstine is called
cecum
hemoglobin disassociation curve is
sigmoidal bc 3 hemes quickly bind their own oxygen molecule
AV node does what
part of electrical conduction system or heart that coordinates top of heart
electrically connects atria and ventricles
lack of nucleus, mitochondria and organelles in RBCs reason
to carry more oxygen
mast cells release what to create an inflammatory cascade
cytokines and granules
what glycoproteins are present in ALL nucleated cells
MHC I
MHC II are present in
specialized antigen presenting cells such as macrophages, dendritic cells, b cells
macrophages ingest
pathogens and present them on MHC II
what has four polypeptide chains (tetramer) with an iron containing heme group combined with each
hemoglobin
myoglobin dissociation curve shape
hyperbolic
MHC I displays what
endogenous antigen to cytotoxic CD8+ t cells
b cells mature into
plasma cells that product antibodies
myoglobin has how many heme groups
1
fetal hemoglobin has a higher or lower p50
lower because of high oxygen affinity
antigen binding region of an antibody is the
tip of the variable region
what does ADH do?
increases permeability of collecting duct to water –> increases water reabsorption
results: higher BP + lower blood osmolarity + concentrated urine
kidney is the only organ in the body to have
two capillary beds in series
capillary beds in series in kidney do what?
connect arteries to veins inside nephron
two capillary beds in kidney are
glomerular
peritubular
aldosterone increases what in where
Na+ reabsorption
distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct
what does aldosterone end up doing
increases water reabsorption and blood pressure
what is the muscular lining of the bladder
detrusor muscle
what does the detrusor muscle do
relaxes to store urine and contracts during urination
under parasympathetic control (rest + digest)
site of bulk reabsorption
PCT (proximal convoluted tubule) in renal cortex
what does the PCT reabsorb
glucose
AAs
soluble vitamins
salt
water
H+, K+, NH3, urea
internal sphincter is made of
smooth muscle
under parasympathetic control
DCT is permeable to
water but NOT SALT
as filtrate moves into the more osmotically concentrated renal medulla….
water is reabsorbed from filtrate
network of capillaries located at beginning of each nephron in kidney
glomerulus
what stimulates b-cells to secrete antibodies
helper t-cells
unlike microfilaments and microtubules, intermediate filaments do not
participate in cell motility
e.g. keratin and desmin
what do the kidneys do
help body pass waste as urine
filter blood before sending it back to heart
intermediate filaments do what to cells
link cells together
do not have a transport role
what detoxifies chemicals and converts NH3 to urea
the liver
aldosterone increases Na+ reabsorption in the
DCT and collecting duct
thereby increasing water reabsorption and raising BP
kdiney regulated pH by adjusting the levels of
excreted H+ and reabsorbed bicarbonate
countercurrent multiplier system allows for
maximal reabsorption of water
what flows in opp directions to create countercurrent multiplier system
vasa recta and loop of Henle
diluting segment of the nephron is in the
outer medulla bc salt is actively reabsorbed in this site
what inhibits GH and what’s the result
somatostatin (GHIH)
leads to lower insulin/glucagon
glucagon (alpha islet cells) - stored form of sugar in liver
insulin (beta islet cells)
GHIH hormone is a
peptide hormone secreted by delta-islet cells of pancreas
DCT is responsive to
aldosterone and is a site of salt reabsorption + waste product excretion just like the PCT
collecting duct has what kind of permeability
variable
variable permeability in collecting duct allows for
reabsorption of the right amount of water depending on the body’s needs
responsive to both aldosterone and ADH
2,3-BPG has no effect on
myoglobin
BPG works by binding in the space between
the subunits in hemoglobin (heterotetramer)
myoglobin has just one what
monomer
which is why i.t. isn’t affected by 2,3-BPG
muscles act in
groups to create movement
opposing pairs of muscles
flexors/extensors
abductors/adductors
an agonist is a muscle that
is causing the desired action
an antagonist is a muscle that is
relaxed
explains why myoglobin oxygen saturation curve is hyperbolic
because of only one heme group being present
NO cooperative binding
red skeletal muscle fibers are
slow twitch and carry out oxphos
red color comes from myoglobin (binds oxygen)
muscle fibers in long distance running
SLOW TWITCH
RED
muscle fibers in middle distance and sprinting
FAST TWITCH
WHITE
what are ruffini endings responsible for
sensation of skin stretching
white skeletal muscle fibers are
fast twitch and carry out anaerobic metabolism
individual virus particles found in extracellular
virion
virions contain
nucleic acid
capsid
what forms the supporting tissue of blood vessels and hollow internal organs?
smooth muscle
hollow organs examples
arteries + veins
airways
uterus
entire GI tract
bladder
ureters
iris (eye)
what does the G mean in G-protein
binding to GTP and GDP
mineralocorticoids are a class of what and include which hormone
corticosteroids
aldosterone
released by adrenal cortex
smooth muscle is uni or multinucleated
uninucleated
no striations
involuntary (autonomic control)
cardiac muscle is uni or multinucleated
uninucleated
striated
under autonomic control
what is meissner’s corpuscle
type of nerve ending in skin that is responsible for sensitivity to light touch
cardiac muscles are connected with what that contains what
intercalated discs
gap junctions
what includes the skull, vertebral column, ribcage and hyoid bone?
axial skeleton
endocrine signalling releases signals into the
bloodstream to carry to target cells in distant parts of body
what includes the limbs, pectoral girdle, and pelvis
appendicular skeleton
what is tidal volume
volume of air inhaled and exhaled in a normal breath
what is the hard structure of the skeleton made of
compact bone (aka cortical bone)
as each drop of sweat evaporates…
it takes a bit of body heat away with it
type of bone located at the ends of long bones
spongy bone
where does tyrosine become catecholamines usually
adrenal medulla
located at center of adrenal gland, surrounded by adrenal cortex which sits on top of kidneys
thin membrane that covers many of the bones in body
periosteum
platelets, RBCs, WBCs are produced in the
bone marrow
long bones provide
strength, structure, mobility
DCT is responsive to
aldosterone and site of salt reabsorption
ligaments attach
bones to other bones
tendons attach
bones to muscles
another name for bone tissue
osseus tissue
nerve endings in skin responsible for sensitivity to vibration and pressure
pacinian corpuscles
chief structural unit of compact bone
osteon
osteon consist of
lamellae (concentric bone layers) which surround a hollow passageway (Haversian canal)
free nerve endings in the skin can detect
temperature, mechanical stimuli (touch/pressure/stretch) or pain (nociception)
merkel cells are
mechanoreceptors essential for light touch sensation
what surround blood vessels and nerve cells throughout bones and communicate w/ bone cells through what?
haversian canals
canaliculi
canaliculi are
small channels that link together lacunae in bones
innate immunity are defenses that are always
active and non-specific
two layers of dermis
papillary and reticular layers
adaptive immunity are defenses that are always
active and specific
osteoblasts do what
build bone
osteoclasts do what
reabsorb bone
osteoblasts mature into
new osteocytes
osteocytes are
mature, permanent bone cells
osteoclasts reaborb
old osteocytes
cell membrane is high permeable to what and slightly permeable to what
K+
Na+
movement through leak channels is controlled by
concentration gradients
what is cartilage
connective tissue that is firm but flexible
connects bones together
avascular and aneural applies to
cartilage
avascular means
no blood vessels
aneural =
no nerves
chondroblasts produces
new matrix
chondrocytes are
found in small groups within cavities (lacunae)
what is cartilage made of
collagen fibers
elastic fibers
water (80%)
cartilage being 80% water means
cartilage can rebound after being compressed
nourishing to cartilage cells
norepinephrine is a
catecholamine
increases HR and BP
what type of joints are fused together to form sutures?
immovable
interphase includes
G1, S, G2 phases
where cell spends most of its life
Na+ ions enter cell through
voltage-gated Na+ channels
Ca2+ enters the presynaptic cell and allows…
vesicles w/ NTs inside to fuse w/ the axon terminal membrane
NTs release into synaptic cleft
