Full Length #3 Flashcards
when the human body is going through starvation, you can generate glucose from:
- glycerol: can synthesize glucose via gluconeogenesis
- glycogen
- amino acids - can be used as substrated for gluconeogenesis
why is it that after several weeks of starvation, acetyl-CoA is primarily converted into ketone bodies?
- in starvation, large amouns of acetyl-CoA are generated by the degradation of fatty acids
- oxaloacetate concentration is depleted because it is used to synthesize glucose
- so although excess acetyl CoA is made during starvation, very little of it can be incorporated into the Krebs cycle because of low oxaloacetate concentrations
- instead the acetyl CoA is used to produce ketone bodies
increased expressivity
expressivity is the measure of the severity of a disease or the intensity of a phenotype
pentrance
a measure of the number of persons with an allele for a condition that display the condition
mortality
measure of the death rate in a population
morbidity
measure of illness
meissner’s corpuscle
tactile processing units in the skin
A patient who has gained 40 pounds in the past 3 months complains of fatigue to her physician. She found to have a goiter and a decreased metabolic rate. Based on this information, the patient most likely has a deficiency of
thyroxine
- is a thyroid hormone that plays an important role in regulating metabolism
- hasa goiter, which is an increase in mass of the thyroid
aldosterone
synthesized in the adrenal gland
- regulates electrolyte excretion and intravascular volume
- affects sodium, potassium, total fluid in the body, and blood pressure
estrogen
development of female secondary sexual characteristics
-breasts, endometrium, regulation of the menstural cycle
which of the following would be expected in methanol poisoning?
metabolic acidosis
-methanol produces formic acid, which will increase arterial [H+]
metabolic alkalosis
caused by the loss of an acid of the gain of a base
hypoventilation
results from metabolic alkalosiss in order to help the body retain acid
what do amino acids do during isoelectric focusing?
they migrate towards a pH near their pI
where is the anode in an amino acid?
the end of the gel with a low pH
where is the cathode in the amino acid?
the end with of the gel with a high pH
when an amino acid is at a pH about its pI, what will it do?
migrate towards the anode
when an amino acid is at a pH below its pI, what will it do?
migrate towards the cathode
silent mutation
if a codon is replaced with another condon but still codes for the same amino acid
ex: if the GAT codon is changed to GAC condon by replacing thymine with cytosine and the aspartic acid is still coded for
frameshirt mutation
an insertion or deletion
missense mutation
point mutation that results in a coding for a different amino acid
nonsense mutation
point mutation that results in a premature stop codon
lysosome
contain numerous enzymes which can break down proteins
also key in recycling
peroxisome
role in metabolism
- break down fatty acids to be used for forming membranes and fuel for respiration
- transfer hydrogen from compounds to oxygen to create hydrogen peroxide and then convert hydrogen peroxide into water
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
think of a factory!!
make cellular products like hormones and lipids
-distributes those products throughout the cell
founder effect
the evolutionary phenomenon where certain areas of the world show much higher frequency of particular alleles than other areas
bottleneck effect
random culling of a gene pool due to a natural disaster or overhunting
genetic drift
the likelihood that the gene pool of a small population will be significantly altered by random mutations
how is mitochondrial DNA passed down?
only through the mother’s egg since sperm cells do not have any organelles
all organelles in the embryonic cell come from who
the mother
persistent virus
needs to keep its host ccell alive and in good working order in order to survive
- do not kill their host cells bc they rely on them
- obligate parasites
the rate of an enzyme-catalyzed reaction can be influenced by which of the following?
temperature, pH, salinity
- activity of an enzyme is highly influenced by its environment
which of the following is a method of replication for epithelial cells?
mitosis
epithelial cells are identical to one another
epithelial cells are constantly shed from the body and have to be replaced
what levels of protein structure is characterized by alpha-helices and beta sheets?
secondary
primary structure
simply the sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain
secondary structure
local folded structure that form within a polypeptide
-alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
tertiary structure
3D structure of a polypeptide
quaternary structure
multiple polypeptide chains (subunits)
protein consisting of more than one amino acid chain
when the body is readying itself for action, what system is taking over?
sympathetic nervous system
- heart increase= more blood, more oxygen
- increases the blood supply to active muscle during exercise by dilating blood vessels in muscles while the blood vessels elsewhere in the body are constricted
what are the hypothalamic hormones
ADH corticotropin-releasing hormone gonadotropin releasing hormone GHRH oxytocin somatostatin thyrotopin releasing hormone
ADH
regulates water levels in the body
affects blood pressure and volume
Cortiocotropin-releasing hormone
stimulates anxiety
suppresses appetite
gonadotropin releasing hormone
stimulates release of hormones that act on testes and ovaries to initiate and maintain reproductive function
-increase in puberty to trigger sexual maturation
growth hormone releasing hormone
controls normal physical development in children, metabolism in adults
-increased by sleep, stress, exercise, and low blood glucose
oxytocin
synthesized by the hypothalamus and released via the posterior pituitary
controls aspects of some human behavior and key aspects of reproductive system
somatostatin
works in inhibit other hormones (growth and thyroid stimulating hormones)
-in the CNS
thyrotropin-releasing hormone
stimulates production of thyroid hormone
which cellular component has the most prominent role in the cleavage and contractility of the cytoplasm during such movement?
microfilaments
intermediate filaments
structurall important in the cytoskeleton
microtubules
key for maintaining cell shape
centrioles
microtubule organizing centers
what regions of the antibody are involved in the binding of antigenic hormones
variable region of the light chain and variable region of the heavy chain
what does the constant region of the heavy chain do?
involved in cellular recognition
what does the constant region of the light chain do?
binds tightly to the constant region of the heavy chain
when an amino acid reaces its pI, what is it considered?
a zwitterion
the molecule is electrically neutral - carboxylate group is (-) and the ammonium group is (+)
to attain neutrality and reach the pI, the ammonium group has to be protonated, how can you achieve this?
lowering the pH
what part of the cell cycle do cells spend most of their time in?
inter phase (composed of G1, 2, G2)
what are some microscopic clues that the cell is in the M phase?
- dissolution of the nuclear membrane
- visible chromatin in various states (w/in the nucleus, lining up the equatorial plate, being pulled to opposite poles of the cell)
what kind of cells undero meiosis?
sex cells
cell cycle explained
G1 - growth
S - DNA synthesis
G2 growth and preparation for mitosis
M- Mitosis
Mitosis
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
if Vmax is the same but Km is higher, what kind of inhibition
competitive inhibition
competitive chopsticks
If Vmax is lower but the Km is the same what kind of inhibition
non competitive inhibition
noncompetitive scissors
what do cells that use direct phosphorylation use for energy store?
creatine phosphate for easy energy transfer to ADP and other molecules
what are the modifications that occur during post transcriptional processing?
- addition of the 5’ cap
- splicing of exons and removal of introns
- polyadenylation
what is the function of the nucleolus
site of production of rRNA transcription and processing
-size of nucleolus in a cell will be proportional to the amount of protein produced by the cell - the more protein a cell needs to produce, the more ribosomes it will acquire, the larger its nucelolus
where is pepsin produced?
the stomach
where is glucokinase produced?
liver specific form of the first glycolytic enzyme
where is amylase produced?
in the salivary glands and in the pancreas
where is trypsinogen
produced in the pancreas
what and where is he mitral valve?
the mitral valve is between the left atrium and left ventricle
it prevents backflow of blood into the left atrium
prefrontal cortex
deals with processing and displaying negative emotions
cerebellum
coordinates and regulates muscular activity
pons
primarily involved with arousal, controlling autonomic functions, sleep
medulla oblongata
primarily involved with controlling autonomic functions and coordinated body movements
what does the independent variable in a study refer to?
refers to the variable being manipulated to see if it has an effect on the result
explain Goffman’s theory of dramaturgy
- concerns an individual’s sense of self and self-presentation that changes depending on the situation
- front stages: interactions with society, an individual knwos his/her behaviors will be openly judge
- back stages: private areas of our lives where we do not have to “act” but rather can be our true selves
outer ear
ear canal lined w hairs and glands that secrete wax
-protection and channels sound
middle ear
transfer sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear
- air spaces that provide routes for infections to travel
- eustachian tube which equalizes the air presure
inner ear
- also called labyrinth
- operates the body’s sense of balance and contains the hearing organ
- cochlea
- organ of Corti: the main hearing organ
escape reinforcement
based on behavior eliminating an existing negative consequence
heuristics
mental shortcuts
-used if a student is having trouble with both content and time on a test
attribution theory
describes the way a person uses information to develop casual explanations
Egocentrism
refers to the inability to take the perspective of another pereson
Ethnocentrism
occurs when individuals compare their own cultural practices with others
Self concept and identity
refers to the way an individual views him or herself
cultural capital
any non-financial social asset that helps improve an individual’s position/status in society
-can help gain social mobility, where they improve their status/role within a society
lyme disease
infection disease associated with bites from deers/ticks
biological perspective
looking at psychological issues by studying the physical basis for animal and human behavior
psychoanalytic perspective
focuses on an individual’s childhood, subconscious development and sexual instincts
humanistic perspective
states that personality and human nature follows a hierarchy of needs
-most basic needs, such as food and water, are at the bottom, whereas philosophical needs, such as self-realization are at the pinnacle
social cognitive perspective
personality is something that can be learned through observation and social interaction
social facilitation
individuals are more likely to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others
group think
the idea that when an individual participates in a group, a consensus is always the most desired result
peer pressure
individual’s attitudes and values being highly influenced by the peer group surrounding them
social loafing
individuals who work in a group to achieve a task exert less effort than if they were working alone to achieve the same task
social identity theory
a person’s self concept is partially determined from their perceived membership in a social group
Cerebrum
responsible for integration of sensory input, conscious thought and all voluntary actions
Cerebellum
responsible for balance and proprioception
The midbrain, medulla, and pons make up what
the brainstem
-responsible for controlling the very basic necessities for sustaining life, such as breathing, hunger, and adjusting heart rate
game theory
rational behavior of interacting people
-people are rational beings who act according to their self-interest
atruism
the idea of doing a good deed for someone else w/o any self-motive
cognitive dissonance
individuals experience when their actions and their beliefs do not align
when do individuals experience more cognitive dissonance?
if they believe it was their choice to act in a deviant behavior (high choice)
trait perspective
believes that individual personality can be broken into countless stable traits that are ubiquitous across all humans and cultures
divided attention
ability to process two or more responses or react to two or more different demands simultaneously
selective attention
ability to select from many factors or stimuli and to focus on only the one that you want while filtering out other distractions
inferior colliculus
part of the midbrain that serves as a main auditory (sound) center for the body
hippocampus
learning, long term memory and emotional responses
hypothalamus functions
releasing hormones
regulating body temperature
controlling appetite
thalamus function
brain’s sensory relay station responsible for sorting sensory stimuli before routing to the target areas in the cortex
inclusive fitness
refers to the idea that an organism improves its own genetic success through altruistic social behavior
what kind of elements are best for conducting electricity?
elements with metallic character
-best for conductin electricity and lowering resistance to help shock better
in the zwitterion form, what is the charge of the ammonium and carboxyalte group?
ammonium: +
carboxylate: -
when the pH falls, what is the charge on the ammonium and the carboxylate group?
carboxylate: gains hydrogen ions and becomes neutral
ammonium: retain their positive charges so exist as cations
when the pH rises above the pI, what happens to the ammonium and carboxylate group?
ammonium groups: lose their hydrogen to form neutral amino groups
carboxylate: remain negatively charged
what does a logarithmic graph translate into?
translates into a straight line on logarithmic scales
when light is absorbed by chlorophyll in plants, it is always true that
electrons are excited to a higher energy level
-always true that when an atom absorbs energy, its electrons move from their ground state to a higher excited state
doppler effect
idea that the speed of both the source and detector of a wave will influence the perceived frequency of that wave
what will affect the intensity of the wave experienced by a detector?
the surface area of the detector
the distance from the source
