Free will and Determinism Flashcards
What is necessary if people are to be morally responsible for their actions?
We are only morally responsible for the actions we carry out freely and deliberately- actions that are freely chosen.
What is determinism?
Determinism states that there are laws of nature which govern everything which happens and that all our actions are the result of these scientific laws and every choice we make was determined by the situation before it, and so on. Therefore freedom of choice is an illusion and nobody can be held morally responsible.
Why does determinism make personal responsibility a difficult concept?
It is difficult to hold people morally and legally responsible if we are only responsible for actions we carry out freely.
How does Greek tragedy reflect the view of determinism?
Often it reflects a fatalism view point ‘whatever will be will be’, where people are the helpless victims of circumstances, necessity and the Fates.
What is predestination?
It is the belief that God has already decided who will be saved and who will not.
Who helped formulated the doctrine of predestination?
Augustine of Hippo and John Calvin.
What is predestination based on?
It is based on the idea that God determines whatever happens in history and that man only has a very limited understanding of God’s purposes and his plans.
What is the difficulty with predestination?
The idea is not based on words or particular passages in the Bible but on ideas about revelation, and has to sit side by side with teachings about individual freedom and responsibility.
What does Augustine say about predestination?
He claims that people need the help of God’s grace to do good, and this is a free gift from God, regardless of individual merit. Consequently, God alone determines who will receive the grace that assures salvation.
Which churches still follow the pre-destination theory formulated by John Calvin?
Presbyterian.
What does John Calvin say about predestination?
The belief says that as man is a complete sinner who is incapable of coming to God, and has a sinful free will that is only capable of rejecting God, then predestination must occur or nobody could be saved. God is in total control and people cannot do anything to achieve salvation.
What quote did John Calvin say to highlight that people are not all created with a similar destiny?
‘Eternal life is fore-ordained for some, and eternal damnation for others. Every man, therefore, being created for one or the other of these ends, we say, he is predestined to life or death.’
What does predestination suggest about moral responsibility?
It suggests people have no free will as far as their ethical decisions are concerned. God has already made his choice about who will be saved independently of any qualities in the individual- he simply decides who will be saved because he can, and all the rest are left to go their natural way: hell. So people only do good because God made them that way, and put them in a certain environment, whilst the rest are limited by their nature and can only choose to be sinful. Logically then, we are not responsible for our actions.
What does Baruch Spinoza say about Hard determinism?
‘In the mind there is no absolute or free will; but the mind is determined to wish this or that by a cause, which has also been determined by another causes, and this last by another cause, and so on to infinity.’
What does Hard Determinism say?
All our actions had prior causes- we are neither free nor responsible.
Why is Hard Determinism incompatible with free will?
It is incompatible with free will and moral responsibility because it claims all our actions are caused by prior causes, so therefore we are not free to act in any other way.
What does Hard Determinism believe about punishment?
It rejects the idea of punishment for retribution, but it does not reject any other views about the justification of punishment; for example deterrence, self-defense, or moral education.
What does John Hospers say about Hard Determinism?
He is a modern Hard Determinist, who says that there is always something which compels us both externally or internally to perform an action that we would think was the result of our own free will. He uses several psychoanalytical examples, and concludes “It is all a matter of luck.”
What did Clarence Darrow do?
In 1924, Clarence Darrow successfully defended two young men, Nathan Leopold and Richard Loeb, on a charge of murdering a young boy, Bobby Franks. He plea dd for the death penalty to be commuted to life imprisonment, as the two young murders were the products of their upbringing, their ancestry and their wealth environment.
What did Clarence Darrow say when defending the two men?
‘What has this boy to do with it? He was not his own father; he was not his own mother; he was not his own grandparents. All of this was handed to him. He did not surround himself with governesses and wealth. He did not make himself. And yet he is to be compelled to pay.’
What did Clarence Darrow say about punishment?
‘Punishment as punishment is not admissible unless the offender has the free will to select his course.’
What do modern versions of Hard Determinism point to as prior causes?
Our genetic heritage, social conditioning, or subconscious influences. The most extreme modern version of hard determinism is behaviorism.
What did John B. Watson say about psychological behaviorism?
He suggested that behaviour can be predicted and controlled, as people live and act in a determined universe so that all human behaviour, including ethical decisions, is controlled by prior causes, which are in principle knowable.
What did John B. Watson say influenced behaviour?
Heredity and environmental factors. By manipulating the environment people’s behaviour can be altered. This idea is called ‘conditioning’ and is influenced by the work of Ivan Pavlov.
What is operant conditioning?
It is a method of learning that occurs through reward and punishment for behaviour and is typically assigned to B.F. Skinner.
What did B.F. Skinner claim?
He claimed that as behavioural science develops, and pyschologists learn to determine and control human behaviour, it is highly probabale that human behaviour is not free but most likely determined.
Who did Steven Pinker base his ideas of determinism off of?
He looked at the ideas of Darwin, developed recently by Richard Dawkins, that emotions such as guilt, anger, sympathy and love all have a biological basis.
What theory did Steven Pinker develop?
He developed the theory that our moral reasoning is a result of natural selection but he claims that this does not mean the end of moral responsibility. Evolution might, for example, predispose men to violence or to sleeping around, but this does not necessitate or excuse such behavior.
What did Steven Pinker say about our morality?
He said that there is a moral sense innate in us, and so is ‘as real for us as if it were decreed by the almighty or written into the cosmos.’
What are all theories of determinism influenced by?
Isaac Newton’s physics, according to which the universe is governed by immutable laws of nature such as motion and gravitation. The world is seen as mechanism dominated by the law of predictable cause and effect.
Why is free will only an illusion according to determinism?
We may appear to have moral choices, but we only think we choose freely because we do not know the causes that lie behind our choices.
What analogy does John Locke come up with to illustrate the illusion of free will?
He describes a man in a locked room; on awakening he decides to stay where he is, not realizing that the door to the room is locked. The man thinks that he has made a free decision, but in reality he has no choice. So it is with our moral choices- we think we make free decisions simply because we do not know the causes.
What did Paul-Henri Thiry (Baron) d’Holback believe?
He believed that humans and human society and actions can all be understood in terms of cause and effects- freedom is once again an illusion.
What analogy does Paul-Henri Thiry (Baron) d’Holback give about free will?
‘You will say that I feel free. This is an illusion, which may to compared to that of the fly in the fable, who, upon the pole of a heavy carriage, applauded himself for directing its course. Man, who thinks himself free, is a fly who imagines he has power to move the universe, while he is himself unknowingly carried along by it. ‘
What did Ted Honderich say about determinism?
He claimed that since everything is physically determined, there is no chocie and so no personal responsibly; there is not even any ‘self’ within us that is the origin of our actions- the mind is a by-product of brain activity, and actions are caused by pyschoneural events involving both mind and brain. According to Honderich, there is no room for moral blame and no point in punishment for the sake or punishment. There is no free will.
What is Libertarianism?
The belief that determinism is false and people are free to make moral choices and so are responsible for their actions.
What does Libertarianism say?
They say that the ideas of cause and effect cannot be applied to human behaviour and choices; we do have freedom to act and we are morally responsible for our actions as we are not compelled to act by outside forces but that moral actions are the result of the values and character of the individual.
What is the most common arguement for libertarianism?
It appeals to our intuitions- we see ourselves as free agents, able to make moral choices, not as puppets on a string. Unlike puppets we have a mind, and it seems reasonable to conclude that having a mind is necessary in order to have free will.
What analogy does Peter Van Inwagen use to describe libertarianism?
He uses the analogy of choosing which branch to go down when traveling along a road, whereas determinism is like traveling along a road with no branches- we cannot choose a different way, or reach a different destination.
Why do Libertarians argue that we do ‘make our actions’?
We make our actions because we could have chosen to do something else. This is clear, because when asked to defend our actions we blame ourselves, or wonder if we did the right thing- we evaluate our action by asking ourselves whether, at that time we could have acted differently. We would only do this if we believed we had alternative ways of acting.
How is modern physics used to support libertarianism?
It is not the case that all events have a cause; Werner Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle, which says that we cannot know both the location and the momentum of subatomic particles at the same time, suggest that it is better to refer to statistical probabilities, rather than simple causation.
Why does Ted Honderich reject the claims of quantum physics?
He rejects the claims of quantum physics as they only apply at the subatomic level; it is certainly not true to think that quantum physics refutes Newtonian mechanics- it is more accurate to say that it qualifies Newton’s view and puts his theories in a broader context.
Why is the principle of causality actually presupposed when considering freedom?
The opposite of causality is randomness. A universe in which there are random events is not one in which we have free will. Behaviour caused by a random event is no more freely chosen than behaviour completely determined by the laws of Newtonian physics. For free choices to be real, a person must be able to cause the events he chooses. If all human actions take place independently of any cause at all, including the will of the individual, then there is no genuine freedom.
What is seen to be the goal of moral action with libertarianism?
The idea of freedom is seen as a goal of moral action- even if our freedom is limited, we show our freedom in our aim to be free and act freely.
What does Jean-Paul Sartre believe about freedom in terms of libertarianism?
Freedom is both the goal and the measure of our lives- from nothing man makes himself what he chooses. Freedom in an end in itself, and it does not matter what a person chooses as long as he chooses freely. To be free is to have a humanly fulfilling life.
What does Jean-Paul Sartre say of people who try to avoid freedom?
A person may try to avoid freedom; then he is guilty of mauvaise foi and just conforms to what is decided by others. He sees life as ultimately absurd, meaningless, and without any reason why an individual exists or chooses to do one thing rather than another.
What is mauvaise foi?
he phenomenon where a human being under pressure from societal forces adopts false values and disowns their innate freedom to act authentically.
What quote does Jean-Paul Sartre have on freedom?
‘To be free is to be condemned to be free.’
What is soft determinism?
The belief that determinism is true in many aspects,but we are still morally responsible for our actions.
Why is free will not compatible with fatalism?
Fatalism, ‘what ever will be will be’, says that nobody can change the course of events.
What is fatalism?
the philosophical and sometimes theological doctrine that specific events are fixed in advance (either by God or by some unknown means) although there might be some free play in minor events.
Why is free will compatible with determinism according to soft determinism?
It is compatible with determinism, a theory of universal causation, if we include our own values, choices and desires among the choices that determine our actions.
Why do soft determinists argue that all human actions are caused?
If human actions were not causes, they would be unpredictable and random.
What do soft determinists mean when they say that all actions are free?
They mean that when an individual’s actions are free, they are not forced or compelled by external pressures. They clarify what is meant by free; we are not free to fly using our own bodies, as this is to misuse the word free and change it from meaning ‘being able to choose’, to being ‘physically able to do.’
How could soft determinism be linked to physics?
Perhaps we live in an inderministic universe that is not completely described by modern physics because there are some events (e.g. human behaviours) which are not determined and not random either. After all, who knows what physics will be like in the next few decades?
What did Immanuel Kant believed that Determinism applied to?
He believed that determinism applied to everything which was the object of knowledge, but not to acts of will.
What two points did he think people worked from?
The theoretical (pure reason) and the practical (practical reason).
What is theoretical (pure reason)?
This concerns knowledge, the mind and the way wee see the scientifically explicable world.
What is practical (practical reason)?
It concerns actions, the will, and the way we see ourselves.
Where does our theoretical and our practical reason reside?
In the Noumenal realms. They are the laws of reason.
What two realms did Kant claim existed?
The phenomenal, and the Noumenal. We are citizens of both.
What is the Phenomal realm?
It is the natural world, which is explained by science and is assumed to be determined by the laws of nature.
What is the Noumenal realm?
It is the realm of ideas and the abstract (separate from the five senses). It is where morality and responsibility resides, and is assumed to be free. The laws of reason (our theoretical and practical reason) operate here.
Why does Immanuel Kant argue that we must our moral choices must be free?
He argues that we cannot look rationally for causes of our actions beyond a genuine act of our will. When we act we always think of ourselves as free, and he claims that freedom is a postulate of practical reason. He argues that our own self-awareness, without which the world would not make sense to us, forces on us the idea that we are free, so we cannot get rid of the idea that we are free without ceasing to see ourselves as the originator of our actions.
Why is soft determinism not a compromise between determinist and libertarian positions?
It is not a compromise,a s it does not limit free will, but is a position taken due to the need to have some accountability and responsibility for human behaviour.
What does soft determinists say about moral responsibility?
We are morally responsible for, and can reasonable be punished and praised for, those actions which are caused by our own desires and decisions.
What does David Hume say on liberty?
We choose what we want to do. ‘By liberty, we can mean a power of acting or not acting according to the determinations of the will; that is, if we choose to remain at rest, we may; if we choose to move, we also may.’
What do soft determinists say about the complex nature of humans?
Our own values, desires and prior choices can determine how we act in certain situations, but these actions are so complex and numerous that the effect they have on our decisions do not determine a precise or specific action.
What parts of the Bible suggest we have free will?
In Genesis, Adam and Eve use their freewill in order to eat from the tree of knowledge and they are not compelled to do so.
What is the problem with freewill and an omniscient God?
God is believed to be all-knowing, this means that God must know what choice we are going to make before we make them. Therefore God must have determined our choices in the past.
What does St paul say in link to predestination?
In his letter to the Romans he wrote ‘For those that God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the likeness of his son, that he might be firstborn among all brothers. And those he predestined he also called; those he called, he also put right with himself; those he put right with himself, he also glorified.’
What does Freud’s theory say in terms of determinism?
Freud believed that our early years have an immense impact on our actions in the future. His theory suggests that prior causes determine our moral development and therefore our actions in the future.
What is social conditioning?
People think and act in line with their social conditioning rather than through genetic determined factors or a real freedom of choice, therefore human action must have distinct social cause. If we are socially determined, then all our actions are caused by something within society; our upbringing, our education, our social situation etc. The theory suggests our social learning and placement is what determines our actions.
What issue does genetics have with moral responsibility?
Genes play a major role in our decisions. We can once again not be held morally responsible if we are acting according go our genes, so can neither be praised or blames for our actions.
What effect could the environment have on our decisions?
Environmental determinism suggests that geography and climate influence individuals more than social conditioning. Historically our climate is said to affect the behaviour of society. If this is the case then the weather and the environment can affect and possibly determine our actions.
What is compatibilism?
The belief that it is possible to be both free and determined, as some aspects of our nature are determined, but not our ability to make moral decisions.
What is incompatibilism?
The belief that determinism is logically incompatible with free will. Some incompatibilists will say determinism is a fact, and free will is an illusion, whilst some take the opposite view.
What is an autonomous moral agent?
Someone who can make a moral decision freely; someone who is totally responsible for their actions.
What does ‘Ought implies can’ mean?
The idea that someone cannot be blamed for what they could not do, but only for what they were capable of doing but did not do.
What example does Hospers give from a hard determinist view point?
Let us suppose it were established that a man commits murder only if, sometime during the previous week, he has eaten a certain combination of foods…What if we were to track down the factors common to all murders committed in this country during the last twenty years and found this factor present in all of them, and only in them? The example is of course empirically absurd; but may it not be that there is some combination of factors that regularly leads to homicide?
Someone commits a crime and is punished by the state; ‘he deserved it,’ we say self-righteously—as if we were moral and he immoral, when in fact we are lucky and he is unlucky—forgetting that there, but for the grace of God and a fortunate early environment, go we.
What does Ted Honderich say on compatilism and incompatilism?
Honderich sounds like an incompatilist, but he actually claims that the very idea of free will is meaningless, so it doesn’t make any sense to claim that free will is incompatible with determinism. He says both compatibilism and incompatibilism are incoherent and meaningless.
What did Einstein think about Quantum physics?
Einstein himself thought that we would one day find the laws that govern quanta, and that ‘God does not play dice’. The world he looked at, even from his unique perspective, was still one where every event was causally determined.
What quote does John B Watson say about classical conditioning?
Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select – doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.
What is the difference between Watson’s appraoch to conditioning and Skinner’s?
BF Skinner’s approach is more credible than Watson’s. Watson tried to show that you could control a child’s behaviour using fear, but Skinner did not agree. Instead, we need to use incentives. Many modern economists have followed in Skinner’s footsteps, explaining human behaviour in terms of our response to incentives
What two things must be in place for us to be able to make free decisions?
we do not already know what we are going to do
it is in our power to do what we are thinking of doing
What example does Michael Palmer give about necessary and contingent truths in terms of libertarianism?
He gives the example of three runners. A is faster than B, B is faster than C. What would happen if they raced? The answer is that we cannot know for certain - when we say “A is faster than B” this is a contingent truth. It means that in the past, A has run faster than B. It doesn’t mean that A will necessarily run faster than B in the future.
What point was Michael Palmer making about contingent and necessary truths in terms of Libertarianism?
The argument here is that contingent truths about the world make the future unpredictable. Something may actually happen in the future (A may actually beat B), but that doesn’t mean it necessarily had to happen. We cannot know the future from contingent predictions.
What distinction does compatibilists make on free and coerced decisions?
A compatibilist, who believes that determinism and free will are compatible, would draw a distinction between actions caused or determined by our personalities (‘free’ actions) and actions with external causes (where we are ‘co-erced’)
What does David Hume say as a soft determinist?
He is saying that all things are necessary. He dismisses the idea that some things are uncaused or happen as the result of mere chance . He also believes we are free. Hume goes on to say that we don’t blame people for things they do ignorantly, and blame them less for things that are not premeditated. In fact, any sense of moral blame can only come if something we do is the result of our character. Free will, and moral responsibility, require determinism.
What did Ancient philosophers believe about our free will?
They saw a distinction between the body and soul, and reason was our most important feature. Plato spoke of the irrational and rational parts of the soul. He also spoke of appetites and reason. Self-mastery consists of the appetite being subject to reason. Ancient philosophers believed that we can choose among alternatives.
