Environmental and business ethics Flashcards
What is environmental ethics?
Environmental ethics considers the ethical relationship between people and the natural world and the kind of decisions people have to make about the environement It simply tries to answer the questions of how humans should relate to their environment, how we should use the Earth’s resources and how we should treat other species, both plant and animal.
What is anthropocentric?
An approach to the environment that places human interests above those of any other species.
What quote does Peter Singer use to criticise the idea that humans have ‘dominion’ over the natural world?
“According to the Dominant Western tradition, the natural world exists for the benefit of human beings. God does not care how we treat it. Human beings are the only morally important members of this world. Nature itself is of no intrinsic value”
How could it be argued from a biblical perspective that the world has intrinsic value?
God seems to value the natural world, ‘God saw that it was good’, and the blessing to ‘Be fruitful and multiply’ is given to all creation. Creation is called to praise and glorify God. He is shown as having continuing concern about his creation- not even a sparrow “will fall to the ground apart from your Father” (without God’s knowledge and permission). If God values creation and creation in return can respond to God, then it seems that the Bible says that all creation has intrinsic value.
How could it be argued from a biblical perspective that Humanity has dominion over the world?
God has a special concern for humanity- we are made in God’s image. We are given dominion over all creations- “let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, and over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, and over all the wild animals of the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps upon the earth.”
How did St Francis of Assisi view creation?
He understand that God communicates to us through the natural world, and that it is a sin to destroy them. He believed that natural world is inherently good and it is a sign of God’s goodness, and so its purpose is to inspire our respect and love. However, he took this a stage further as he believed that all creatures had the ability and the duty to worship God, all are part of the same creation with the same intrinsic value. But he also recognised that humans are the high point of God’s creation because we are created in his iamge.
What is dominion?
The Judaeo-Christian idea that humans have a special place in the natural world and have responsibility for it.
What did Peter Singer argue was the root cause of our environmental problems?
THe idea that dominion may be understood as considering that the natural world can be treated however we wish and be tamed for our use, and that we should ‘subdue’ the Earth (Genesis 1:28)
What is the difference between Genesis 1 and 2?
When the second creation account in Genesis 2 is compared to the first, we are told that man is put in Eden to protect and preserve it: “THe Lord God took the man and put him in the garden of Eden to till it and keep it” (Genesis 2:15)
Why can it be argued that humans are the peak of creation?
Humans may be the peak of creation, but only because we have the role of stewardship- we are to care for and conserve creation because it belongs to God: humans are merely caretakers of his properties.
What would belief in Stewardship say about our relationship with the natural world?
Humans are co-creators with God and need to use and transform the natural world with care. Creation is made by God and is good,and so much be preserved because it has intrinsic value.
What is stewardship?
A way of interpreting the use of dominion, which sees humans as caretakers of the natural world.
How is the Fall seen by some to be the cause of our environmental problems?
Because from this point we became poor stewards of creation: “The earth dries up and withes, the world languishes and withers; the heavens languish together with the earth. The earth lies polluted under its inhabitants; for they have transgressed laws, violated the statutes, broken the everlasting covenant” (Isaiah 14:4-5)
What do Christians teach about our responsibility to the environment?
They teach that we need to use our increasing knowledge to rectify this and re-establish the bond between God and man, between God and the natural world. Thus for Christians the environment must be protected, and past mistakes must be used as learning tools and rectified where possible
Why might some Christians believe that we don’t need to look after the environment?
They do believe that humans have ‘dominion’ and that the Genesis creation story teaches that ‘man’ is superior to nature and can use its resources unchecked. Those who believe in the ‘end-time’ feel that concern for the Earth and the natural world is irrelevant because they have no future. Destruction of the environment is to be welcomed, and even helped along, as it is a sign of the coming of the Apocalypse and the second coming of christ.
What does Pastor John Hagee say about environmental and social issues?
He says that the environmental and social crisies of today are portents of the Rapture, when born-again Christians living and dead will be taken into heaven: “All over the earth, graves will explode as the occupants soar into the heavens”, he preaches. Non-believers left behind will have seven years of suffering, culminating in the rise of the Antichrist, and the final battle of Armageddon. Once the battle is won, Christ will send the non-believers to hell and re-green the Earth, where he will reign in peace with his followers.
What is meant by biocentric?
An approach to the environment that considers the biological nature and diversity of the Earth to be of supreme importance.
What was the modern study of environmental ethics a response to?
The work of scientists such as Rachel Carson and her influential book silent spring, which explored the idea of interconnectedness through a study of the use of pesticides and how their effect is felt through the food chain. The fate of one species is linked with that of all other species, including humans.
What did Alan Marshall claim were the three main ethical approaches to the environment over the last 20 years?
- Libertarian extension or deep ecology
- Ecologic extension or eco-holism (including the Gaia hypothesis)
- Conservation ethics or shallow ecology
What is shallow and deep ecology also referred to as?
Because in thought, shallow is bad and deep is good, they are today referred to as dark green and light green.
What is deep ecology?
An approach to environmental ethics that sees all life forms as of value and human life as just one part of the biosphere. It rejects anthropomorphism.
What is shallow ecology?
An approach where the earth is cared for to make conditions better for humans.
What inspired deep ecology?
Aldo Leopold’s book Sand County Almanac, which inspired a new approach to the environment and an interest in ecology as a science. The book is a mixture of natural history and philosophy, and calls for a new approach to the environment.
What quote does Aldo Leopold write about the environment?
“A thing is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the bionic community. It is wron when it tends otherwise.”
what did Aldo Leopold say we need to do?
He stated that we need to develop an ethics to deal with man’s relationship to land, animal and plants, and to extend our social conscience from people to land, and that it is not right to see the natural world simply in terms of its economic worth to humans.
What did Aarne Naess say were the two ecology movements?
He basically stated that there are two ecology movements: the first is concerned mostly with pollution, the depletion of natural resources and the usefulness of the Earth for humans (anthropocentrisim), and the second is concerned with the richness, diversity and intrinsic value of all the natural world- this is deep ecology.
What did Aarne Naess argue about the environment?
He argued for the intrinsic value and inherent worth of the environment. According to Naess, every being, whether human, animal or vegetable, has an equal right o live and blossom. He called this ecosophy, which he defined as “By an ecosophy I mean a philosophy of ecological harmony or equilibrium”
Why did Aarne Naess reject the idea that humans were more importance because they had a soul, use reason of have consciousness?
Argued that nature does not exist to serve humans; humans are simply a part of nature and all species have a right to exist for their own sake, regardless of their usefulness to humans. This view requires a complete change in how human relate to the natural world.
Why does Aarne Naess oppose the Christian view of Stewardship?
He opposes it as arrogant and depending on the idea of superiority which underlies the thought that humans exist to watch over nature like some sort of middleman between God and his creation.
What eightfold deep-ecology platform did Aarne Naess and George Sessions list?
- All life has value in itself, independently of its usefulness to humans
- Richness and diversity contribute to life’s well-being and have value in themselves
- Humans have no right to reduce this richness and diversity except to satisfy vital needs in a responsible way
- The impact of humans in the world is excessive, and rapidly getting worse
- Human lifestyles and population are key elements of this impact
- THe diversity of life, including cultures, can flourish only with reduced human impact
- Basic ideological, political, economic and technological structures must therefore change.
- Those who accept the foregoing points have an obligation to participate in implementing the necessary changes and to do so peacefully and democratically.
What is ecosophy?
A word formed by contracting the phrase ‘ecological philosophy’. It refers to philosophies which have an ecocentric or biocentric perspective such as deep ecology.
What does Naess propose that humans should do?
- Radically reduce the Earth’s population
- Abandon all goals of economic growth
- Conserve diversity of species
- Live in small, self-reliant communities.
- ‘touch the Earth lightly.”
What is the problem with the ideas proposes by Naess?
Many consider these ideas are simply not practical or realistic, especially as the human population is increasing rapidly and humans have just as much right to reproduce as any other species.
How does RIchard Sylvan respond to the problems with deep ecology?
As a result of these problems, he developed an alternative approach to deep ecology called deep green theory, which involves respect but not reverence for the environment.
What is Holistic?
An approach to the environment that considers a range of factors, including the importance of balance within the ecosystem.
What is James Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis?
A type of eco-holism, that challenges the view that humans are the most important species and sees humans as part of a living whole- Gaia. All the life forms of the planet are a part of Gaia- looking at the Earth from space, Lovelock saw not so much a planet of diverse life forms as a planet transformed by a self-regulating living system; it was almost a living being.
Where does the word Gaia come from?
THe word Gaia was first used by William Golding and comes from the name of the Greek goddess of the earth.
What did Lovelock argue about Gaia originally and why did he reject this?
In his early work, he argued that Gaia is regulated by the living organisms within it to maintain suitable conditions for growth and development- he later rejected this position and saw the regulation as conducted by the whole of Gaia, not just the living organisms.
What does Lovelock argue about Gaia and the maintenance of life?
He examined the fossil evidence which showed that climatic change had, in fact, taken place within a very narrow range so that life was never destroyed. Conditions seem to have favoured life; they are not random but intelligently organised- this he claims was not carried out by God, but by Gaia herself. however, God could be an explanation for the existence of Gaia and for maintaining her in existence.
Why does Lovelock’s Gaia hypothesis oppose Darwinian idea of the survival of the fittist?
It says that the conditions on Earth are actually managed by Gaia herself. The world is not a result of chance but of self-enginerring.
Why does Lovelock argue that life cannot be destroyed?
There are many types of algae that are resistant to ultraviolet radiation, so even if the ozone layer were to be destroyed, life would continue and new life would evolve. On the Bikini atoll where nuclear bombs were tested, life has returned; the same may be said for the site of the Chernobyl disaster. Human life may be wiped out, but humans are just a part of Gaia and Gaia herself would survive without or presence. This theory challenges humans to change their perceptions and see themselves as part of a whole. If we abuse Gaia then we risk our own survival, as Gaia owes us nothing and we owe her our very existence.
Why is Lovelock more pessimistic in his latest work?
He is more pessimistic about climate change and our reluctance to confront it. He now considers that as the global temperatures rise higher and higher and there are more climatic disasters, the planet may not be able to recover as he previously thought. He advocates the rapid expansion of nuclear power to cut fossil fuel emissions.
What quote does Lovelock use to say we need to use nuclear power instead of fossil fuel emissions?
“Civilisation is in imminent danger and has to use nuclear energy now, or suffer the pain soon to be inflicted by our outraged planet.”
How does Lovelock view the environment?
The Earth is a unified, holistic living entity with ethical worth, and in the long run the human race has no particular significance, but we are part of it and all the organisms on Earth are interdependent.
What is instrumental value?
When something’s value lies in its usefulness for others
What is conservation ethics?
The ethics of the use, allocation, protection and exploitation of the natural world.
What does shallow ecology say about the value of the environment?
The only value in animals and plants is their extrinsic, instrumental value for humans. The are a means to an end- conservation is important for our welfare and that of future generations. It looks at the worth of the environment in terms of its utility or usefulness to humans. Conservation is a means to an end and is purely concerned with humanity.
What did shallow ecology lead to?
This is the ethic which formed the underling arguments for the three agreements reached in Rio in 1992 and for the Kyoto summit in 1997
What does shallow ecology say?
Shallow ecology or light green environmentalism restricts independent moral status to humans- it is anthropocentric. Biodiversity should be preserved, as particular species of animals and plants provide us with medicines, food and raw materials. So shallow ecology will accept that environmental damage can continue if humans benefit from it. Neither animals nor plants have rights, and any respect shown to them depends on how humans benefit.
Why would many people criticise shallow ecology?
For many people contact with the natural world is a part of the good life- part of having a good quality life- so swimming with dolphins, hill walking, seeing cherry trees in bloom are experiences that are valued for their own sake, not just as an instrumental good.
What does Michael La Bossiere suggest about human obligations to the environment?
He argues that species should be allowed to die out, as this is just part of the natural process of evolution- humans, he says, are a natural species and so any species that becomes extinct due to human activity is simply becoming naturally extinct. Humans have no obligation to prevent natural extinction, but this does not mean that humans should have a free hand in eradicating species, even when it would benefit humanity.
What did Peter Singer set a criteria for?
He used a set of criteria for moral status based on sentience. This means that moral worth includes animals- if not, we are guilty of ‘specieism’. Our treatment of all humans and animals should be equal.
